Course Of Development Research Articles

How to Promote the Ability of Physics Teaching Materials Development through Team-Based Project Learning? An Action Research Evidence

This action research study investigates the use of team-based project learning to enhance the pedagogical competence of pre-service physics teachers, specifically focusing on their capacity to develop physics teaching materials. The study employed a five-stage strategy, which included the following steps: first action, observation, reinforcement, second action, and assessment. These phases formed a cycle of action research in a pedagogical course within the undergraduate program of physics education, specifically focused on teaching material development. Observation, assignments, product assessment sheets, and interviews were utilized to obtain data. The obtained data consists of quantitative data, namely performance value data related to both the process and product, as well as qualitative data in the form of interview findings. The findings indicate that 96% of pre-service teachers who engaged in material development courses through project activities had highly satisfactory marks, namely within the A- and A categories. This study emphasizes the significance of fostering efficient pedagogical techniques among prospective educators and provides data from an action research investigation. Furthermore, this research also assists in the preparation of pre-service physics instructors who possess the necessary skills to create physics textbooks. Participating in collaborative project activities allows pre-service physics teachers to gain essential skills, knowledge, and practical experiences that will prepare them for their future positions in the classroom.

Diabetes and further risk of cancer: a nationwide population-based study

BackgroundIndividuals with diabetes have a significantly higher risk of developing various forms of cancer, and the potential biological links between these two diseases are not completely understood.MethodsThis was a longitudinal retrospective nationwide cohort study, a study design that allows us to examine the natural course of cancer development over an extended period of time with a large sample size. Initially, 3,111,975 and 22,208,395 eligible patients aged ≥ 20 years with and without diabetes, respectively, were matched by age, sex, and the Charlson comorbidity index. Ultimately, 1,751,457 patients were selected from each group. Stratified populations for diabetic retinopathy (DR) (n = 380,822) and without DR (n = 380,822) as well as proliferative DR (PDR) (n = 141,150) and non-proliferative DR (NPDR) (n = 141,150) were analyzed in this study. The main outcome measure was the first-time diagnosis of cancer during the follow-up period.ResultsWe observed a 20% higher risk of total cancer incidence [hazard ratios (HR), 1.20; p < 0.001] in the diabetes cohort compared to the non-diabetes cohort. The highest HR was observed for liver and pancreas cancers. Moderately increased risks were observed for oral, colon, gallbladder, reproductive (female), kidney, and brain cancer. Furthermore, there was a borderline significantly increased risk of stomach, skin, soft tissue, female breast, and urinary tract (except kidney) cancers and lymphatic and hematopoietic malignancies. The stratified analysis revealed that the total cancer incidence was significantly higher in the DR cohort compared to the non-DR cohort (HR, 1.31; p < 0.001), and there was a borderline increased risk in the PDR cohort compared to the NPDR cohort (HR, 1.13; p = 0.001).ConclusionsThis study provides large-scale, nationwide, population-based evidence that diabetes is independently associated with an increased risk of subsequent development of total cancer and cancer at specific sites. Notably, this risk may further increase when DR develops.

Studying efficacy of particular design elements in online teacher professional development courses: The case of systematizing videos for enhancing teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge

While design principles for effective teacher professional development (PD) courses have been empirically identified in comprehensive studies, they have not yet been well disentangled with respect to the contribution of specific design elements. This particularly applies for digital online PD courses and for teachers with different prior knowledge. In this paper, we investigate two design elements for the systematizing phase (videos vs. discussions) of a synchronous online PD session with regard to their differential effectiveness for teachers’ professional growth in pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and their emotional and motivational reactions to the PD. In our focused randomized controlled trial, 102 mathematics teachers (with heterogeneous PCK) participated in 2‑hour online PD sessions on specifying, noticing, and enhancing students’ understanding of multiplication with various PD inquiry activities. In the systematization phase, teachers were randomly assigned to two treatment conditions: the video group watched a systematizing video (i.e., a video that summarizes the PCK elaborated during the session) and the discussion group had small-group discussions about individual summaries. In both groups, teachers’ reports about emotional and motivational reactions to the PD revealed similarly high values, and their PCK improved significantly from pre-test to post-test. Analyses of variance with repeated measures revealed significant differences between the treatment conditions for teachers with low prior PCK: Teachers with low prior PCK who watched the systematizing video developed their PCK significantly more than those who discussed in small groups. In this way, the study contributes to disentangling the differential effects of design elements in online PD courses for teachers with heterogeneous prior knowledge.

Early life interventions metformin and trodusquemine metabolically reprogram the developing mouse liver through transcriptomic alterations.

Recent studies have demonstrated the remarkable potential of early life intervention strategies at influencing the course of postnatal development, thereby offering exciting possibilities for enhancing longevity and improving overall health. Metformin (MF), an FDA-approved medication for type II diabetes mellitus, has recently gained attention for its promising anti-aging properties, acting as a calorie restriction mimetic, and delaying precocious puberty. Additionally, trodusquemine (MSI-1436), an investigational drug, has been shown to combat obesity and metabolic disorders by inhibiting the enzyme protein tyrosine phosphatase 1b (Ptp1b), consequently reducing hepatic lipogenesis and counteracting insulin and leptin resistance. In this study, we aimed to further explore the effects of these compounds on young, developing mice to uncover biomolecular signatures that are central to liver metabolic processes. We found that MSI-1436 more potently alters mRNA and miRNA expression in the liver compared with MF, with bioinformatic analysis suggesting that cohorts of differentially expressed miRNAs inhibit the action of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (Pi3k), protein kinase B (Akt), and mammalian target of rapamycin (Mtor) to regulate the downstream processes of de novo lipogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, very-low-density lipoprotein transport, and cholesterol biosynthesis and efflux. In summary, our study demonstrates that administering these compounds during the postnatal window metabolically reprograms the liver through induction of potent epigenetic changes in the transcriptome, potentially forestalling the onset of age-related diseases and enhancing longevity. Future studies are necessary to determine the impacts on lifespan and overall quality of life.

Planning for the Implementation of Fine Motor Work Therapy Activities for Special Needs Pupils

Occupational therapy activities can assist pupils with special needs in resolving some of their fine motor issues. Teachers should increase special needs pupils' pre-writing preparation with planned and structured activities that are methodical and have increasing qualities. This study aimed to observe how far Special Education teachers could go in planning appropriate activities based on their pupils' abilities by selecting occupational therapy activities and then sharing the potential impact expectations of fine motor ability of special needs pupils, particularly pupils with learning difficulties. This is a qualitative study that employs the hands-on method, observation, discussion, and interviews with 41 teachers and 17 pupil management assistants who participated in a continuous professional development course, which the researcher conducted at the Institute of Teacher Education Campus level and were able to produce a planning of activities that has the learned characteristics of advanced tolerance, focus, adaptability, and choosing the simplest to most complex occupational therapy activities. Furthermore, teachers can share the outcomes of activity planning and group discussion, as well as set expectations for the potential of the targeted pupils. Finally, this study suggests that special education teachers should collaborate and receive professionalism training on an ongoing basis to foster the proliferation of ideas and skills in planning appropriate activities to improve the fine motor skills of pupils with special needs.

Transforming a synchronous community of collaborative critical inquiry into co-performing construction of professional development in education

ABSTRACT This paper reports a university instructor’s critical evaluative rethinking for inspiring teaching and re-development of a course for schoolteacher professional development at times of crisis, from local socio-political movements to the global COVID-19 pandemic. The instructional mode was expected to revitalise schoolteachers’ collaborative critical inquiry in multiple digital realities of a synchronous blended learning community when university campuses and schools were closed during the pandemic. A qualitative case study was adopted to evaluatively, critically, and collaboratively unpack the effects of rethinking in response to the challenge. The participants included the instructor and 25 schoolteachers. The findings highlight the inspired rethinking of synthesising emerging elements of collaborative critical inquiry in connection to the philosophical underpinning and practical structure of the Community of Inquiry framework. The course was innovatively infused with the interdependent presences of the framework towards transactional cycles of professional teaching and learning in the community. This sheds new light on the effects of co-performing construction of teaching towards deep learning experiences on professional development. The main implication of the co-performing construction is trustful cohesion of common professional identity for professional development across educational levels.

Taxonomic Implication of Conducting Elements in the Acrocarpous Mosses

Present study deals with the structure and development of conducting elements in the nine orders of acrocarpous mosses. The significance of conducting tissues in mosses in relation to their habitat conditions, growth forms and leaf cell patterns has been discussed. Features of cells in different portions of the stem and the laminal cell patterns and costa are taken into consideration. Although water-conducting cells are unspecialized in mosses, yet the study shows that they seem to play a vital role in the conduction and provide additional criteria for the distinction of taxa. Four categories have been determined as (i) Acrocarpous mosses with a distinct thick-walled conducting strand (6-7 layered) as hydrome which is surrounded by patches of leptoids. Cortex consists of thick walled cells (6-10 layered). Costa has stereidal cells and well developed conducting elements in leaf, example Polytrichum (ii) Acrocarps with thick-walled, narrow, elongated conducting strand (4-5 layered), cells angular in the cortex (6-8 layered). Leaf cells are rectangular, irregular and porous with incrassate walls, example Dicranum (iii) Acrocarps with conducting tissue (2-5 layered) stereidal, thick walled or thin walled varying in the course of development. Leaf cells are mutipapillate, rounded-quadrate, costa is present, examples Hyophila, Philonotis and (iv) Epiphytic pleurocarps with conducting cells rudimentary, thickened, scattered (2-4 layers) and parenchymatous, cortical cells (2-3 layered) thick walled. Leaf cells are small, rounded or linear and papillate, costa may be present or absent, example Leucodon . The study would constitute a formidable task, especially if intraspecific structural variability is considered. It serves a model system in the eco-physiological aspects.

In search of time: Higher education teachers' experience of an online professional development course

AbstractThis article investigates teachers' lived experiences of an online professional development (OPD) course in Denmark – that is, Teknosofikum – through a hermeneutic phenomenological perspective, and it relies on the interpretive analysis of 15 semi‐structured interviews. The article's contribution focuses on the theme of ‘time’ and highlights it as a multifaceted construct that plays a relevant role in learning. By relying on the ideas of temporal structuring and multiple temporalities, the article shows that OPD courses and HE teachers' engagement nest themselves into pre‐existing and complex nexus of commitments and duties, each of which has its own temporality and rhythm, along with longer‐term aspirations for pedagogical development. As time emerged as a relevant aspect characterizing OPD course design and HE teachers' experiences, the article provides simple recommendations for ‘time‐aware’ OPD courses.

Impact of professional dance training on characteristics of postural sway.

The stability of human upright posture determines the range and dynamics of movements performed. Consequently, the repertoire and quality of the movements performed by a dancer are mainly determined by the efficiency of postural control. This is of particular importance in professional dance training that should focus on shaping optimal movement‑posture interaction. To get a deeper insight into this problem, the impact of the training on postural sway characteristics during quiet stance was analyzed in 16 female students in the seventh grade of a ballet school and compared with the size‑ and age‑matched group of secondary school students. Center of pressure trajectories were recorded for 25.6 s while standing quiet with eyes open (EO) and then with eyes closed (EC). The assessment of postural control was based on novel normalized sway parameters including sway vector (SV), sway anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) directional indices (DIAP and DIML), and sway ratios (SRAP and SRML). The results document a significant contribution of vision to postural stability control in ballet students, which seems to compensate for training‑related changes in joint mobility and altered activity ranges of the legs' muscles. In the control group standing with EC, SV amplitude increased only by 18% whereas in the ballet students tested in the same conditions, the increase exceeded 72%. Under full control of standing posture (EO test), the training‑related increase of leg muscle forces allows dancers to maintain balance with lesser effort as documented here by 21% reduced SRAP. Additionally, the dancers while tested with their EC exhibited a 12% increase in the anteroposterior sway with a concomitant reduction of the mediolateral sway. The resulting changes in the postural control asymmetry were documented by both DIAP/DIML and SV azimuth. In conclusion, our novel analysis of postural sway seems a useful tool in monitoring the effects of training as well as the proper course of postural control development in children and adolescents.

Creative dance – practising and improving … what? A study in physical education teacher education

Creative dance, that is to say, movements, with or without music, which allow participants to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings, are sometimes accompanied by a ‘there is no right or wrong way to move’ rhetoric. This may reinforce the impression among physical education teacher education (PETE) students, who often have limited experience of (creative) dance, that there is nothing to practise in creative dance and that this activity is merely directionless movement. In this paper, however, based on Aggerholm's notion of practising movements, we explore an occasion in a PETE course where a magic moment occurred, indicating that the students had practised and ‘figured out’ something that made this moment possible. The purpose of the paper is to explore the knowledge in movement that PETE students were practising as they participated in creative dance. The purpose is also to shed light on what pedagogical practice contributed to enabling such practising. Video documentation and short interviews with students in one PETE course and one continuing professional development course for physical education teachers indicate that the magic moment was made possible as the students’ practised making sense of moving in non-predetermined – creative – ways and appreciating the expressive dimension of movement. Laban's movement analysis framework seemed, along with the teachers’ knowledge of movement, to be an important element in the pedagogical practice that made the magic moment possible.

Self-determination and intention to adopt massive open online courses (MOOC) for professional development

Motivations have shown great influences in people’s acceptance of technologies, this can be concluded from previous research in the field of technology acceptance. This study investigates the relationship between the Self-Determination Theory of Motivation and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and confirms a significant relationship across most of the variables in the theories. The study offered an expanded Technology acceptance model (TAM) in the context of a massive open online course (MOOC), based on self-determination theory (SDT). By investigating the effect of autonomy, competence and relatedness on perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and attitudes. The findings show a statistically significant positive relationship between perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and attitudes. Results indicate that autonomy and relatedness have a statistically significant positive influence on attuited but the influence of competence was not statistically significant. Moreover, results show a statistically significant influence of autonomy and relatedness influence on perceived ease of use but the influence of competence was not statistically significant. Also, results show a statistically significant relationship between autonomy, and competence but not statistically significant for relatedness.

Teamwork Conflict Management Training and Conflict Resolution Practice via Large Language Models

This study implements a conflict management training approach guided by principles of transformative learning and conflict management practice simulated via an LLM. Transformative learning is more effective when learners are engaged mentally and behaviorally in learning experiences. Correspondingly, the conflict management training approach involved a three-step procedure consisting of a learning phase, a practice phase enabled by an LLM, and a reflection phase. Fifty-six students enrolled in a systems development course were exposed to the transformative learning approach to conflict management so they would be better prepared to address any potential conflicts within their teams as they approached a semester-long software development project. The study investigated the following: (1) How did the training and practice affect students’ level of confidence in addressing conflict? (2) Which conflict management styles did students use in the simulated practice? (3) Which strategies did students employ when engaging with the simulated conflict? The findings indicate that: (1) 65% of the students significantly increased in confidence in managing conflict by demonstrating collaborative, compromising, and accommodative approaches; (2) 26% of the students slightly increased in confidence by implementing collaborative and accommodative approaches; and (3) 9% of the students did not increase in confidence, as they were already confident in applying collaborative approaches. The three most frequently used strategies for managing conflict were identifying the root cause of the problem, actively listening, and being specific and objective in explaining their concerns.

The Evolution Mechanism of Correctness for Cyber-Physical System

Cyber-physical Systems (CPS) are widely used in all areas of life. Ensuring the correctness of CPS remains an enduring challenge during its development and design phases. One approach to ascertain the correctness of CPS is behavior equivalence based on bisimulation. However, whether the implementation development process develops in the right direction has an important impact on obtaining the correct system implementation. Especially, the development process of complex CPS often yields a multitude of implementation versions, the correlation among these versions partly signifies the correctness of the development process. This paper formalizes the relationship between the implementation versions and establishes a formal description of the development process progressing in the correct direction, leveraging the concept of a “limit idea.” Initially, we introduce the concept of “limit bisimulation” for CPS systems to delineate implementations acquired during the CPS development process. Specific limit bisimulations are demonstrated to represent distinct scenarios within the development process. Subsequently, the convergence mechanism of implementations is modeled through bisimulation limits, encapsulating the CPS’s specification as the ultimate goal of obtained implementations during the development process. Finally, the congruence property of the bisimulation limit is proved, which accounts for the relation between specification and implementation versions can be decomposed into a refinement hierarchy. The limit theorem of bisimulation in CPS can help the designer and developer of CPS to comprehend the development course better.

Predictors of reading comprehension and profiling of poor readers in Croatian: educational and clinical perspectives.

Reading is an important academic skill. Children who exhibit reading difficulties are more likely to experience various negative professional and personal consequences. To successfully identify children with reading problems as early as possible, one must first understand how reading skills can be mastered, as well as the course of reading development in children with typical reading skills from the beginning of their formal reading instruction. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the influence of decoding and language comprehension on reading comprehension ability. In addition, this study aimed to determine types of profiles among poor readers and estimate their frequency in the study sample. Based on the Simple View of Reading model, we developed decoding, language comprehension, and reading comprehension tasks. Participants included 100 typical readers (TR) and 95 poor readers (PR) in the second grade in Croatian schools. Phonemic awareness, phonological working memory, and rapid automatized naming tasks were used to test underlying abilities of decoding skills in both groups of participants. As expected, PRs showed significantly lower performance on all variables than TRs. The correlations between decoding, language comprehension and reading comprehension are significant in the PR group. The linear regression analysis showed that language comprehension was a significant predictor of reading comprehension for TRs, while decoding and language comprehension were significant predictors of reading comprehension for PRs. The profiling of reading difficulties revealed five different profiles, the most common of which was a mixed reading difficulty, i.e., difficulties in both decoding and language comprehension. In line with theoretical expectations, success in reading comprehension in TRs at the end of the second grade depends mainly on language comprehension. To achieve this complex cognitive skill, PRs' language comprehension alone is not sufficient, so they still rely on their decoding skills. Among the poor readers, there was a high prevalence of children with decoding problems (i.e., three out of five profiles). Teachers should be able to identify and monitor decoding difficulties in children, since these difficulties are associated with noticeable manifestations, unlike those associated with comprehension difficulties.

Effectiveness and safety of PCSK9 inhibitors in children with family hypercholesterolemia

Familial hypercholesterolemia (CGHS) is a monogenic disease with a predominantly autosomal dominant type of inheritance, accompanied by a significant increase in the level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood, and as a result, premature development and progressive course of atherosclerosis, usually at a young age. One of the common causes of the disease is a mutation in the PCSK9 gene. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is the main link in the regulation of blood lipid metabolism due to its direct participation in the degradation of LDL receptors. Currently, only evolocumab is used as PCSK9 inhibitors in children over 12 years of age in the Russian Federation, which has proven the safety and steady reduction of LDL cholesterol in pediatric patients with HES. Another representative of this pharmacological group is alirocumab, which is currently indicated only for people over the age of 18, due to the lack of evidence in children.

A Targeted Deep Sequencing Method to Quantify Endogenous Retrovirus Gag Sequence Variants and Open Reading Frames Expressed in Nonobese Diabetic Mice.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are involved in autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes (T1D). ERV gene products homologous to murine leukemia retroviruses are expressed in the pancreatic islets of NOD mice, a model of T1D. One ERV gene, Gag, with partial or complete open reading frames (ORFs), is detected in the islets, and it contains many sequence variants. An amplicon deep sequencing analysis was established by targeting a conserved region within the Gag gene to compare NOD with T1D-resistant mice or different ages of prediabetic NOD mice. We observed that the numbers of different Gag variants and ORFs are linked to T1D susceptibility. More importantly, these numbers change during the course of diabetes development and can be quantified to calculate the levels of disease progression. Sequence alignment analysis led to identification of additional markers, including nucleotide mismatching and amino acid consensus at specific positions that can distinguish the early and late stages, before diabetes onset. Therefore, the expression of sequence variants and ORFs of ERV genes, particularly Gag, can be quantified as biomarkers to estimate T1D susceptibility and disease progression.

Navigating the online learning journey by self-regulation: Teachers as learners

Self-regulated learning (SRL) can be defined as the ability of learners to act independently and actively manage their own learning process. This skill becomes especially important in online environments, which allow learners to decide where and how to study. Most research on SRL has focused on students; few studies have addressed teachers' SRL as learners, and only a handful has done so in the context of online learning. A better understanding of teachers' SRL is essential since teachers are expected to support the development of their students' SRL abilities. This study contributes to bridging this gap by examining how online learning patterns reflect the self-regulated learning of teachers as learners in an online professional development (PD) course on nanotechnology. The study applies a mixed methods approach that combines the qualitative analysis of interviews with teacher learners and a personal summary of their learning process represented in four vignettes as well as quantitative log-file analysis to identify teachers' learning patterns. The patterns identified are interval learning, on-track learning, skipping difficult parts, concentrated learning toward the end of the course (i.e., “bingeing”), and watching together. These patterns indirectly shed light on teachers' SRL skills, especially their time management and task strategies, demonstrating that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to learning. The study highlights the need for a holistic approach, provides deeper insights into teachers’ learning experiences, and helps design future online PD courses.

Mobile learning and speech technology for language teachers’ professional development

This study aims to investigate the use of mobile learning to provide pronunciation training for lecturers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) from Vietnamese provincial universities. Mobile learning offers a potential solution for the delivery of professional development to lecturers based outside major cities thanks to its capacity to enable learning anytime, anywhere. Mobile learning and speech technology are expected to facilitate lecturers’ self-direct learning to fulfil their professional development needs using their own devices. This paper reports results from a pilot study which serves as the first phase of an ongoing design-based research project. The pilot study was carried out to explore the feasibility of an online pronunciation course and identify potential problems for future course iterations in the context of participants living outside major cities in a developing country. The objectives of the project are to establish and test a set of fundamental principles for mobile learning to be an effective way of providing online professional development for lecturers based outside major cities and to shed light on the necessary adjustments in course design to make it a scalable model for future education planning. In this study, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected during two iterations of an online pronunciation professional development course for EFL lecturers from Vietnamese provincial universities.

Facilitating social learning through learning design

In the field of technology-enhanced learning design, the rise of Web 2.0 has been the filip needed to accelerate the emergence of socially-connected global learners. These highly social learners now use the web to engage with knowledge and skill development and as such, online education has moved irrevocably beyond simply the finding and sharing of information among learners. The higher education sector is responding to this learning landscape. This is particularly relevant to the massive open online courses (MOOCs) environment where there is the potential for thousands of participants to learn through multiple open source tools with minimum intervention from educators. This social learning perspective can present a challenge for some educators. In this paper we present a work-in-progress collaborative project designed to respond to the professional development of teaching academics newly engaged in designing and teaching from a social learning perspective. We, in a central learning and teaching unit, designed and developed a professional development (PD) course that sought to build the capacity of academics going through this change: they were about to teach on a MOOC platform. Our purpose was to model the social learning framework as a method of capacity-building, but we also aimed to distil authentic social learning for the academics themselves. This resulted in creating a community of practice among educators. Further research is required to measure the impact of this capacity-building course in order to further enhance the learning experiences of academics preparing to teach on a MOOC platform.

Development of political and legal ideas regarding the concept of protective democracy

The article examines the evolution of the concept of protective democracy and ways of its implementation in political and legal practice. It is emphasized that in the course of historical development, the concept of democracy as one of the oldest means of organizing political power underwent significant changes caused by the evolution of society, legal and political systems, which affected its interpretation and implementation. The ideas that arose around this concept were studied, considering them from different perspectives - from historical to modern. It is shown that the primary and consolidated ideas about protective democracy arose at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries, when democracy began to be considered as a means by which citizens can protect themselves from excessive state control. It is noted that in the process of formation of the concept of protective democracy, political and legal ideas about the right to vote as a tool for the implementation of government accountability played a significant role, since democratic institutions and procedures need protection from abuse of power to ensure their stability and effectiveness. It is emphasized that the right to vote, as a key element of democracy, plays a significant role in this concept, as it is the main mechanism for expressing the will of the people and establishing the accountability of the government to the citizens. It is noted that ensuring wide access to voting ensures a higher level of government legitimacy and reduces the likelihood of its authoritarian tendencies. It is shown that political and legal ideas about the right to vote played a key role in the formation of the concept of protective democracy, emphasizing the need to protect and support this fundamental right to ensure the stability and effectiveness of democratic systems. Attention is paid to the contribution to the concept of defensive democracy by such outstanding thinkers and politicians as John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill and James Madison. The implementation of certain aspects of protective democracy in the US Constitution is considered, and attention is drawn to the role of the republican form of government in this context. Certain milestones in the development of the concept of protective democracy in the 20th century are shown, as well as some ideas regarding this issue in the 21st century, namely the types of protective democracy and its identification as an indirect form of democracy, are explored. Characteristic features of protective democracy and its definition are proposed.