Water In Countries Research Articles

Germany's global water consumption under consideration of the local safe operating spaces of watersheds worldwide

Germany is one of the five largest consumer markets in the world. Given that both supply chains and water consumption in agriculture, industry and underlying resource extraction and energy generation are globally intertwined, consumption in Germany undeniably has a major impact on global water consumption. This paper aims to determine Germany's global consumption-induced water consumption (hereinafter water consumption ), with a particular focus on the worldwide origin of the country's blue water consumption at a watershed level and under consideration of the local safe operating spaces of watersheds. First of all, an approach based on environmentally extended multi-regional input-output analysis (EE-MRIO) was used to determine the origin of national contributions to Germany's water consumption. The resulting national contributions were then allocated to 8250 watersheds worldwide, weighted by consumption, and benchmarked against their local safe operating spaces. In this study, Germany's water consumption in 2015 was approximated to 171 ​km 3 (6 ​m³⋅capita −1 ⋅day −1 ), 14.4 ​km³ of which was blue water. Other countries contributed more than 80% of Germany's blue water consumption. India, Pakistan and Egypt contributed more blue water to Germany's blue water consumption than Germany itself; virtual water imports from the Indus, Nile, Ganges and Mississippi river basins alone accounted for more than a quarter of Germany's total blue water consumption. Taking into account the local safe operating spaces of watersheds worldwide, more than 15% of Germany's external blue water consumption is deemed to exceed the local safe operating spaces of the contributing watersheds. Overall, the results are in line with previous studies of Germany's water footprint, albeit offering unprecedented spatial detail and hence new scientific substantiation for environmental policy-making. Moreover, the method applied, which can be transferred to other types of scientific analysis, shows how spatially explicit water consumption results can be derived from EE-MRIO-based analyses, even at the subnational level.

How agricultural water use efficiency varies in China—A spatial-temporal analysis considering unexpected outputs

Chinese agricultural production has grown rapidly over the past two decades. However, expanding large-scale production faces a sharp conflict with the supply of water resources. Meanwhile, to adapt to changes in consumer preferences and protect the environment, both the livestock and crop industries had to input more to achieve a high output of meat and grains and low graywater footprint emission. Using provincial panel data of China from 2008 to 2019, this study adopted a slacked-based model to measure the country's agricultural water use efficiency (AWUE) that considered graywater from crop and livestock production as an unexpected output. Based on the concept of sustainable development, using the graywater footprint as an undesired output included environmental pollution caused by agricultural production as part of the cost and could more accurately measure the water efficiency of current production. We also applied the Tobit model to identify the main factors influencing AWUE. Our results indicated the following. (1) Wealthy provinces produced more graywater than did poor provinces. If the province's gross domestic product climbed, the volume of graywater of livestock would surpass graywater of crops by a greater amount. (2) The AWUE in Southwest and South China fitted a "U" trend, while the remaining five regions showed an inverted U-shaped tendency. (3) To improve the AWUE, it is necessary to increase the crop area of economic crops and expand the scale of the livestock industry; compared with investment in irrigation infrastructure, investment in research and experimental development produces higher marginal benefits in enhancing the AWUE. (4) Environmental regulations inhibit the improvement of the AWUE, while irrigation infrastructure significantly improves the AWUE.

Assessment of surface waters and pollution impacts in Southern Ghana

Abstract Illegal mining and inappropriate use of agrochemicals have exacerbated surface water pollution in Ghana. The quality of water has changed, and knowledge of their current condition is important for formulating policies to conserve the country's water bodies. This study assessed the quality of surface waters in Ghana's Pra River Basin. A survey of 344 local farmers randomly sampled was conducted and a physicochemical analysis of 33 water samples collected from 25 rivers in the basin. Boreholes are the main source of drinking water for 85% of farmers, and they assessed water quality by its appearance. Rainwater provides over 50% of the water needed by the respondents for domestic use. River water was mainly used for crop production and only secondarily for domestic use. At more than 80% of the sampled sites, pH, Fe and P were above the WHO recommended values, while Pb was exceeded at 30% of the sites. Cu, Hg, As and Fe were above permissible levels for irrigation, especially near the mining areas. The poor quality of river water makes it unusable despite its availability. A more effective and efficient land-use policy focusing on buffer zone protection is recommended to minimise water quality degradation in the basin.

Anthropogenic barriers to longitudinal river connectivity in Greece: A review

An inventory of anthropogenic barriers to longitudinal river connectivity in Greece is presented based on an extensive literature review. We mapped Greece's 275 major dams and developed an ongoing inventory of 661 other barriers compiled from various sources; we further summarized future dam barriers as published in Greece's river basin area management plans. Environmental professionals and engineers were also interviewed to investigate perceptions and preferences concerning longitudinal river connectivity. Fish were given priority as reference organisms in questionnaire responses, the reviewed literature and relevant legislation, but other biodiversity elements were rarely addressed. Dams prevail as the most prominent perceived barrier pressures while most respondents seem to recognize problems with other barrier types as well. However, mention of small barrier infrastructure in the literature or legislation is very scarce and there is no systematic inventory of in-stream infrastructure barriers, fish passes or other barrier mitigation or restoration interventions. Recommendations for particular unmet needs and opportunities for restoration of a variety of barrier types are addressed. It is crucial that attention for preservation and restoration measures involving lotic waters connectivity issues be introduced in the country's EU-inspired water body management and within protected areas in particular.

Quantitative and qualitative indicators of natural and waste waters in the Dnipro basin

Analysis of the state of water resources in Ukraine provides an opportunity to improve the ecological situation on the basis of hydrographic and water management zoning using the latest methodological approaches and technologies for constructing the water balance of the basin areas. The aim of the research is to establish patterns of change in the quality indicators of the country's water resources in the largest basin of the Dnipro River. The study was carried out on the basis of an assessment of indicators for monitoring changes in the quantitative and qualitative indicators of water resources in the Dnipro basin in 2016-2021.A decrease in the Dnipro runoff was recorded: the average long-term natural runoff at the mouth is 53.3 km3, and the actual runoff is about 11 km3 (20%) less than the natural runoff. A decrease in the quantitative indicators of water intake from the Dnipro basin in 7365 million m3, a decrease in the quantity (up to 547.1 million m3) and a deterioration in the quality of return water and the general state of water resources in the basin from the northwest to the southeast. The measurements’ results of the indicators of the waters’ qualitative state in the reservoirs and the main watercourses of the basin at the locations of the monitoring points indicate that the norms are exceeded by a multiplicity of more than 5 times, including in terms of BOD and COD, which reflect the intensity of pollution of water bodies with easily oxidizing and difficult oxidizing organic compounds. The screening of pollutants revealed the content of pesticides, drugs, antidepressants, heavy metals-carcinogens in the Dnipro water, which makes it possible to investigate the problems with water resources, taking into account the specifics of the river basin. Such an assessment shows that climate change and industrial enterprises, as notable anthropogenic component, are significant factors affecting water resources. This indicates the importance of the direction of the policy of state regulation on water monitoring, the introduction of an irrigation and drainage strategy, the construction of centralized water supply and sanitation systems and strict control over the indicators of wastewater discharge.

Between Principles & Power: Water Law Principles & the Governance of Water in Post-Apartheid South Africa

Abstract Debates over the management and allocation of water in the postcolonial era, and in post-apartheid South Africa in particular, reveal that struggles over water resources in Southern Africa occur within three broad frames: the institutional, the hydrological, and the ideological. Each of these realms reflects tensions in the relationship between power and principle that continue to mark the governance of water. Each perspective offers a way to understand the use and the limits of law in the management of a country's water resources. The existence of explicit principles, whether as policy guidelines, constitutional rights, or in the language of regional and international agreements, provides two important resources for those who struggle for access to water. First, a vision of a more just allocation of this fundamental resource and, second, an articulation of common benchmarks to which states and governments might be held to account.

Water Resource Management and Crop Production in General and in Ethiopian Scenario

Water was considered a free commodity in the past, which meant that its quality was unregulated and it was available whenever it was needed. However, as a result of increased population and urbanization, diversification, and a rapid increase in resource demands, water resources are becoming limited and of lower quality. Only 13-18% of the water used by irrigated crops worldwide is used in the form of transpiration, which is correlated with yield and production. Small-scale irrigation development would result from a lack of quality and quantity of water supply for growing crops, as well as increased social, economic, and environmental costs associated with developing large-scale irrigation schemes. This type of development has an impact on the use of rain-fed water for irrigation efficiency. Whereas rain-fed agriculture produces more irrigation products in developing countries' semi-arid regions, accounting for up to 90% in some cases. The primary option would be to increase crop production in these areas by increasing rain-fed agriculture, which ensures that freshwater supply is not stressed in irrigated agriculture. Ethiopia also has a significant amount of available water resources. Despite the country's remarkable water resource potential, river basin development is rarely carried out. Water is critical to the development of the country. Furthermore, Ethiopia's abundant natural water resource endowment, rapidly growing economy, and ambitious government agenda present significant opportunities. It is critical to recognize and capitalize on these opportunities. Water resource management in Ethiopia is hampered by a lack of knowledge about resource conditions, patterns of use, and change drivers, as well as a lack of capacity and capacity within organizations to manage water distribution, determine impacts and trade-offs, and ensure 'climate-smart' planning. Keywords: Crop, Ethiopia, Rain-fed, Water resource management DOI: 10.7176/CER/13-6-02 Publication date: October 31 st 2021

Assessing the hydrological changes of environmental water rights due to climate change (The case study -Sefidrood river)

Background and Objective:Climate change and the lack of logical balance between water supply and demand in various sectors of industry, agriculture and drinking are among the leading challenges in the macro-management of the country's water resources. Therefore, the effects of climate change can be evaluated in various basins, including environmental aspects. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of climate change on variations of the hydrological regime (runoff) downstream of Sefidrud Dam and to estimate the minimum environmental flow. Method:In this regard, initially using LARS-WG microscale exponential model, climatic data that affects the runoff under three scenarios RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 for the period 2021-2080 was determined and introduced as an input to the hydrological model of SWAT to simulate the river flow. Findings:Due to the increasing trend of temperature and precipitation, the amount of runoff in the future period showed an increasing trend as well. Then, using two hydrological methods of the Tenant and flow duration curve, the minimum environmental needs of the river were determined. The obtained values show that the minimum environmental needs of the river will be met according to the results of the tenant method and the flow duration curve in the future.Discussion and Conclusion: The results showed that the flow values obtained by the tenant method were less than the average flow simulation. Despite the high correspondence and coordination of the flow rate from the flow continuity curve with the simulated average flow values, it can be stated that in order to provide environmental water rights, the flow continuity curve method has a higher performance than the Tenant method.

Source, sea and sink—A holistic approach to understanding plastic pollution in the Southern Caribbean

Marine plastics are considered to be a major threat to the sustainable use of marine and coastal resources of the Caribbean, on which the region relies heavily for tourism and fishing. To date, little work has quantified plastics within the Caribbean marine environment or examined their potential sources. This study aimed to address this by holistically integrating marine (surface water, subsurface water and sediment) and terrestrial sampling and Lagrangian particle tracking to examine the potential origins, flows and quantities of plastics within the Southern Caribbean. Terrestrial litter and the microplastics identified in marine samples may arise from the maritime and tourism industries, both of which are major contributors to the economies of the Caribbean region. The San Blas islands, Panama had the highest abundance of microplastics at a depth of 25 m, and significantly greater quantities in surface water than recorded in the other countries. Modelling indicated the microplastics likely arose from mainland Panama, which has some of the highest levels of mismanaged waste. Antigua had among the lowest quantities of terrestrial and marine plastics, yet the greatest diversity of polymers. Modelling indicated the majority of the microplastics in Antiguan coastal surface were likely to have originated from the wider North Atlantic Ocean. Ocean currents influence the movements of plastics and thus the relative contributions arising from local and distant sources which become distributed within a country's territorial water. These transboundary movements can undermine local or national legislation aimed at reducing plastic pollution. While this study presents a snapshot of plastic pollution, it contributes towards the void of knowledge regarding marine plastic pollution in the Caribbean Sea and highlights the need for international and interdisciplinary collaborative research and solutions to plastic pollution.

Assessing the performance of industrial water resource utilization systems in China based on a two-stage DEA approach with game cross efficiency

While shouldering the burden of economic development, China's industrial sector has significant water consumption and wastewater discharge, which has intensified the country's water shortage. To improve the efficiency of industrial water resource utilization system, data envelopment analysis (DEA) has been widely used to assess the performance of the system. The current network DEA approaches adopted to investigate the system all belong to the self-evaluation mode, and existing network DEA cross-efficiency evaluation approaches have shortcomings. Therefore, a two-stage DEA approach with game cross efficiency is proposed to evaluate the system. First, according to the operation process of the system, this paper decomposes the system into a general two-stage network structure: water use stage and wastewater treatment stage. Second, the DEA game cross-efficiency model is improved to the general two-stage DEA game cross-efficiency model to evaluate the overall efficiency of the system. Third, given the overall efficiency, an efficiency decomposition model is proposed to determine a set of weights for each decision-making unit to evaluate water use efficiency and wastewater treatment efficiency. Finally, the rationality of the proposed approach is illustrated by model comparison, and the efficiencies of industrial water resource utilization systems in 31 regions of China from 2010 to 2015 are evaluated based on the proposed approach. The results indicate that, from the overall efficiency perspective, no region in China is always evaluated as being overall efficient and the overall efficiencies of 17 regions show an increase before a decreasing trend or decreasing trend during the study period. In 11 regions, wastewater treatment efficiency is far lower than water use efficiency, and in 11 other regions, both sub-stages are inefficient. In terms of the three areas, the eastern area has the highest water use efficiency, the central area has the lowest efficiency of both sub-stages, and the western area has the highest wastewater treatment efficiency. Some recommendations are presented to ensure China's sustainable development.

Impact of the Marine Transport System and Public Administration on the Environmental Protection

In connection with the development of the economy and the increasing scale of human economic activity, the transportation of various goods by sea (water) transport is increasing, which make up 60-67% of the world cargo turnover. At the same time, there is a negative impact on the environment, its pollution, the consequences of which affects both the current generation and may affect the future. Therefore, the impact of water transport on the environment is an urgent and pressing problem of today, but it is necessary to note the positive aspects of the development of the country's water transport, which has an impact on the creation of an additional export and transit route for the transportation of goods, the entry of Kazakhstani goods to world markets and the creation of additional jobs in this industry.

Gestão das águas na Suíça: descentralização, pragmatismo e fragmentação

Nas últimas décadas, o conceito normativo de gestão integrada de recursos hídricos (GIRH) passa a ser difundido por instituições internacionais. Assim, governos mundiais adaptam seu quadro legal e institucional para incorporar tal conceito de modo sistemático. No entanto, a Suíça revela uma forma singular de compreender tal conceito, seguindo as características próprias do federalismo existente no país. Este artigo indica como e por quais motivos o modelo de gestão de águas do país não segue o modelo internacional de GIRH e quais são as principais vantagens e desafios para a gestão de recursos hídricos em um país federal tão descentralizado como a Suíça.

Mobilization and transport of pesticides with runoff and suspended sediment during flooding events in an agricultural catchment of Southern Brazil

Brazil is one of the largest consumers of pesticides in the world, and these chemicals present a high contamination risk for the country's water bodies. The mechanisms of mobilization and transport of pesticides from cropland to river systems are controlled by runoff and erosion processes occurring at the catchment scale. In addition to the excessive use of pesticides, the transport processes of these substances are also accelerated by inadequate soil management and the absence of soil conservation measures at the catchment scale. The current research relied on hydrological monitoring to investigate the transport and persistence of pesticides in response to hydrological dynamics. The study was conducted in the Conceição River watershed where runoff and suspended sediment fluxes are continuously monitored at the outlet. This study area is representative of the grain production system in southern Brazil including the application of large amounts of pesticides combined with extensive runoff and erosion problems. Sample collection in the river for pesticide analysis included the analysis of both water and suspended sediment. The sediment deposit analysis was performed in a single location at 4 depths. Results demonstrate the occurrence of pesticides including simazine, 2,4-D, carbendazim, imidacloprid, tebuconazole, propiconazole, tetraconazole, and trifloxystrobin in water, while glyphosate and AMPA were detected in suspended sediments, and AMPA and carbendazim were found in sediment deposits. The study demonstrated the strong dependence of the mechanisms of pesticide mobilization and transport in the catchment with the intra- and interevent variability of hydro-sedimentary processes. Pesticide detections can be related to several factors, including the magnitude of the rainfall event, the period of pesticide application, or the transport of suspended sediment. All these factors are correlated, and the mechanisms of transportation play an important role in the connections between sink and sources. The results suggest that pesticide monitoring should take into account the runoff and erosion pathways in each particular catchment, and it should especially include the monitoring of major rainfall events for identifying and quantifying the occurrence of pesticides in the environment. The transport of pesticides indicates to be potentiated by intensive pesticide use, the magnitude of rainfall-runoff events, and the absence of runoff control measures (e.g., terracing). These results demonstrate that water and soil conservation techniques should be planned and coordinated at the watershed scale to reduce the connectivity of water and sediment flows from agricultural areas to river systems with the implementation of effective runoff control practices. This will control the mobilization agents (runoff), as well as limit the connection between the sources and the water bodies.

Future scenarios for the development of the desalination industry in contexts of water scarcity: A Brazilian case study

Despite its abundant water resources, Brazil faces water distribution problems, since the population is concentrated mainly in areas with less water availability. This fact combined with the impacts of climate change has intensified problems related to the country's water crisis in recent years. Desalination has emerged as a promising technology to meet freshwater demands. However, the desalination in Brazil is still incipient, with its expansion being linked to technical, economic, and political issues. The desalted water price, technological development, tax incentives, and other variables affect the growth of this sector. In this study, the scenario planning method is used to model these uncertainties and to formulate alternative scenarios for the development of desalination in Brazil by 2050. The study shows four possible futures for the Brazilian desalination industry: the weakening of the sector due mainly to the high costs of desalted water production (Scenario 3), the full development of the industry with desalination plants in the main cities, meeting the water demand of the population (Scenario 4), the moderate growth of this industry that will serve the population in drought periods (Scenario 2), and, Scenario 1 which describes a continuation of current trends, with desalination units only in remote regions.

Beyond blue: An extended framework of blue water footprint accounting.

The water use of societies results in multiple environmental and social impacts and is a fundamental component of sustainability. Correspondingly, water footprint studies have grown significantly in numbers over the last decade. However, these studies mostly account for the human appropriation of freshwater resources, while overlooking various alternative water resources. This paper responds to the growing need for a complete water footprint accounting and presents an extended framework of the blue water footprint, comprised of seven water types. A case study shows spatially-explicit and use-specific analysis of Israel's diverse water system. Israel's freshwater use accounts for only 40% of its total water use. Desalinated seawater and reused wastewater contribute 52% and 45% to the country's municipal and agricultural water use, respectively. The "original" blue water footprint assumes only freshwater use; thus, it overestimates the appropriation of natural water resources by humans. The extended blue water footprint accounts for seawater, brackish water, runoff, and reused wastewater along with surface water and fresh groundwater. It, therefore, estimates the human water use more accurately. Alternative water types' use has some adverse environmental and health impacts. These include high energy intensity due to desalination, soil salinization from brackish water irrigation, and human exposure to traces of pharmaceutical in drinking water due to treated wastewater irrigation. By acknowledging the water mix of different sectors and regions, the extended blue water footprint contributes to advancing a water-energy nexus analysis or accounting for various environmental and health impacts of water use.

Progressive water deficits during multiyear droughts in basins with long hydrological memory in Chile

Abstract. A decade-long (2010–2020) period with precipitation deficits in central–south Chile (30–41∘ S), the so-called megadrought (MD), has led to streamflow depletions of larger amplitude than expected from precipitation anomalies, indicating an intensification in drought propagation. We analysed the catchment characteristics and runoff mechanisms modulating such intensification by using the CAMELS-CL dataset and simulations from the HBV hydrological model. We compared annual precipitation–runoff (P–R) relationships before and during the MD across 106 basins with varying snow-/rainfall regimes and identified those catchments where drought propagation was intensified. Our results show that catchments' hydrological memory – modulated by snow and groundwater – is a key control of drought propagation. Snow-dominated catchments (30–35∘ S) feature larger groundwater contribution to streamflow than pluvial basins, which we relate to the infiltration of snowmelt over the Western Andean Front. This leads to longer memory in these basins, represented by a significative correlation between autumn streamflow (when snow has already melted) and the precipitation from the preceding year. Hence, under persistent drought conditions, snow-dominated catchments accumulate the effects of precipitation deficits and progressively generate less water, compared with their historical behaviour, notably affecting central Chile, a region with limited water supply and which concentrates most of the country's population and water demands. Finally, we addressed a general question: what is worse – an extreme single-year drought or a persistent moderate drought? In snow-dominated basins, where water provision strongly depends on both the current and previous precipitation seasons, an extreme drought induces larger absolute streamflow deficits; however persistent deficits induce a more intensified propagation of the meteorological drought. Hence, the worst scenario would be an extreme meteorological drought following consecutive years of precipitation below average, as occurred in 2019. In pluvial basins of southern Chile (35–41∘ S), hydrologic memory is still an important factor, but water supply is more strongly dependant on the meteorological conditions of the current year, and therefore an extreme drought would have a higher impact on water supply than a persistent but moderate drought.

Comparison of temporal and spatial patterns of water quality parameters in Anzali Wetland (southwest of the Caspian Sea) using Support vector machine model

Urgent is growing to have reliable information from the country's water resources. In recent years, data mining models such as artificial neural network (ANN), gene expression programming, Bayesian network, machine algorithms, such as a support vector machine (SVM), and Random Forest have found widespread use in the field of simulation and prediction of components in aquatic ecosystems. Variables vary greatly on water quality parameters (due to nonlinear and complex relationships). Therefore, conventional methods are not eligible to solve water resource quality management problems. The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of simulating the spatial and temporal alterations in water quality parameters during the period 1985-2014 in Anzali Wetland using a SVM model. Based on principal components analysis (PCA), the parameters EC, TDS, pH and BOD5 were selected for analysis in this study. Spearman correlation was calculated to determine the inputs of the model and the correlation coefficient(CC) between the water quality parameters. According to the results of the correlation table analysis, 8 types of structures including different inputs were used to predict the parameters with machine vector. In the next stage, 70% of the data were used to train, while the rest were used for analyzing the models. Criteria for determination coefficient (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) were used for evaluation and model performance. The results revealed that in verification stage among different used models, the pH had the highest accuracy (0.95), while the lowest RMSE (0.20). Trend of alterations for optimal model of each parameter on a time scale, indicated an adequate estimation at most points. In general, the results exhibited the appropriate accuracy and acceptable performance of the SVM model in simulating water parameters.

Assessment of quality and potential reuse of wastewater treated with conventional activated sludge

Climate change and the increasing scarcity of water resources have placed the water sector in Morocco at the centre of the public authorities' interests, because of its decisive role in the country's water security and in supporting its development, particularly irrigated agriculture. This has prompted the scientific community and national authorities to move towards an alternative resource to promote the reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation, which could alleviate this water crisis. This study evaluates the performance of the Al-Hoceima city's low-load activated sludge type wastewater treatment plant by analyzing the quality of raw and treated (domestic) wastewater. Indeed, the analysis of the evolution of the pollution parameters between the entry of the station and its exit, shows average reductions of 99% for BOD5, 97% for COD, 96% for TSS, and for the reduction of heavy metals was as follows: Ba < Co < Mn < Pb < Cu < Zn < As < Ni < Cr < Fe < Cd < Hg. Based on the results of the analyses, all of which comply with the discharge standards, Al-Hoceima WWTP is considered a leader in the field of wastewater treatment. A comparison with the recommendations of Morocco and the international community reveals that the results of on-site parameters such as pH, temperature, conductivity and pollution parameters show that the effluent from the Al-Hoceima wastewater treatment plant is within the standard acceptable limit for irrigation.

Sustainable Development of Qatar Aquifers Under Global Warming Impact

The recent sharp increase in Qatar population and urbanisation have exerted more pressure on the country's limited water resources. Many studies have recommended managed aquifer recharge (MAR) to i...

Estimation of the spatial and temporal water footprint of rice production in Bangladesh

Abstract As Bangladesh has expanded its irrigation coverage and has become self-sufficient on rice production to feed its vast population, there has been a strain on the country's water resources. Water footprint (WF) is an effective metric that estimates the overall water use for any product or service. This study quantified the water footprints and their components for the Aus, Aman, and Boro produced in Bangladesh. The analysis was spatially distributed for the year 1997, 2007, and 2017. The combined, estimated, spatially averaged WF for all three rice varieties (based on unit production) decreased over this 20-year period (5365 m3/tonne, 3980 m3/tonne, and 3404 m3/tonne for 1997, 2007, and 2017, respectively). Irrigation-intensive Boro rice had the lowest WF with the highest contribution from the blue WF part. In contrast, the spatially averaged WF based on total production was estimated to be 98,136 Mm3/year, 115,133 Mm3/year and 123,505 Mm3/year in 1997, 2007, and 2017, respectively. This gradual increase of WF due to an increase in total rice production will affect future water availability, particularly during the irrigation-intensive dry season. Exploratory spatial clustering identified the central-north region as a High-High clustered zone for WFblue– indicating a significant pressure on water resources. As a potential means of reducing this pressure, the feasibility of switching from Boro rice to wheat has been studied. The analyses will help policymakers adopt region-specific plans for crop-related water use to ensure food security, considering water resources sustainability as a prime intent.