Sahelian Countries Research Articles

Terrorism as a factor geopolitical restructuring in the Sahel region

Since the beginning of the new millennium, extremism has emerged as a major challenge facing the African continent. This phenomenon significantly impedes economic and political development, prompting individual states to fight terrorism through various initiatives. Despite these efforts, tangible results have been elusive due to the transfer of extremist ideologies across state borders, leading to external interventions under the guise of the “fight against terrorism in the Sahel.” Although jihadist terrorist groups have long been present in Africa, the Sahel countries and African organizations have not adopted effective strategies to combat violent extremism. Since 2011, terrorist organizations have seized control of areas in the Sahel, with Boko Haram conducting numerous operations that threaten regional security and stability. In response, African organizations such as the African Union and regional bodies have implemented policies and initiatives aimed at curbing the spread of violent extremism through military interventions and economic and social development projects in the Sahel. These efforts include alliances like the Lake Chad Basin Commission and G5 Sahel, comprising five Sahel countries. Given the regional and international ramifications of extremism on Western interests and economically powerful states, African nations and organizations have engaged in serious cooperation with the international community and major powers. This collaboration includes efforts with the United Nations, France, and other entities in peacekeeping missions and initiatives to combat terrorism and extremism. Keywords: Africa, Sahel, geopolitics, terrorism, war, counterterrorism, military intervention, security.

Russia in struggle for Niger

The article is devoted to Russia's eff orts to stabilize the military-political situation in the Sahara-Sahel zone, primarily in Niger, and to assist in the economic development of the country, as well as the promotion of cultural ties in it. The attempts of the USA and France to keep this country in the orbit of their infl uence are analyzed. An attempt is being made to explain why on July 27, 2023, Niger became the third country in the Sahara-Sahel zone, where military personnel carried out a coup against the pro-Western Mohamed Bazoum, who held the presidency since April 2021. The coup was led by the commander of the Guard, General Abdurahman Ciani. On July 28, he was proclaimed interim head of State. The Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS) has imposed economic sanctions against the country and has even considered military intervention. As before in Mali and Burkina Faso, during all these events, citizens of Niger shouted anti-French slogans and carried Russian flags, as well as symbols of the Wagner PMCs, which gave which gave the West a pretext to accuse Moscow of involvement in this. Many Russian political scientists interpreted the outbreak of hatred of Africans towards the former metropolis and increased sympathy for Russia as a continuation of the struggle against neocolonialism. Approximately the same explanation comes from the new military regimes in 3 countries of the Sahara-Sahel zone, where coups have taken place over the past 2 years. This was overlaid by the "shuttle diplomacy" of Deputy Defense Minister Yu-B. Yevkurov in August-September 2023, his numerous negotiations and meetings with the leaders of Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and the Central African Republic, after which a military-political alliance of the three Sahel countries was proclaimed on September 17, where coups took place. And all this against the background of the withdrawal of French troops and UN peacekeepers from Mali and the departure of French diplomats from Niger. Although in reality we are talking about the failure of the French colonial model of governance and development of the former colonies.

Effects of Strategic Rivalries on Non-Rival Neighboring Small States

This research sheds light on the remarkable political stability that has prevailed for more than a decade in Mauritania, a Sahelian country that has notably not been affected by the spillover effects of military coups in the Sahel. In understanding Mauritania’s political stability—evidenced by the country's first peaceful and constitutional transition of power in 2019 and the absence of any coups since 2009—the paper offers an explanation based on the impact of strategic rivalries on non-rival small states. Specifically, it examines how Mauritania, which has been subject to pressures from the Algeria-Morocco strategic rivalry, deflected these pressures and achieved political stability through shelter diplomacy. Since 2010, Mauritania has managed to secure shelter with France, elevating its relations with Paris to the highest level in their bilateral history. This is evidenced by hosting the G5 Sahel headquarters, engaging in very active summitry with Paris, hosting French soldiers, and chairing the AU summits in 2018 and 2024, despite pressures from terrorism and the historically threatening Algeria-Morocco strategic rivalry.

The security situation of Sahel countries. A Test of African Military Politics.

Book review about the African Military Politics in Sahel

Gender differences in agricultural productivity: Puzzling evidence from West Africa

Gender norms, institutional constraints, and gender disparities in regards to the access to production factors persist and undermine agricultural growth in developing countries. There is limited evidence regarding the comprehensive gender productivity gap across crops and countries after controlling for the gender disparities in access to productive resources. This study analyzes the gender gap in agricultural productivity in West Africa. We use a nationally representative data, which was collected from a large household sample size in eight countries using harmonized survey instruments. This analysis uses the recentered influence function. We also account for the crop and country specificities in West Africa. We find that female farmers have productivity advantages in pulses and disadvantages in cereals and cotton. Moreover, our results show that these gender differences are higher in Sahelian countries than in coastal countries, and decrease in cereals and increase in pulses along the productivity distribution. Furthermore, we also find that the structural component is the primary driver of the gender productivity gap, underscoring the importance of the returns on resources. Our study contributes to the literature by providing evidence that a comprehensive analysis can decipher the multidirectional gender productivity gap across crops and go beyond a usually aggregated female disadvantage. The findings are of great interest to policies and regional agricultural programs. They highlight disparities in the gender gap across subregions and show that this gap is a crop-level phenomenon, rendering the conventional farmer-level analysis insufficient. This study emphasizes the need to further elucidate the factors explaining the gender structural disadvantages in West Africa to improve agricultural productivity and gender equity and reduce poverty.

Effects of Natural Disasters on West Africa Sahel’s Economy: The Case of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger

The Sahel region is facing the adverse effects of the natural disasters due to the drought and floods which are the most frequent events. These effects can be spread and affected the all the Sahel States economy. Therefore, this study attempts to analyze the effects of these natural disasters on the macroeconomic variables such as production, consumption, investment and inflation in the three (3) the northern central Sahel States. To do so, the panel vector autoregressive model (PVAR) is run on the World Bank and the International Emergency Disasters Database (EM-DAT) data from 1990 to 2021. The results revealed that the occurrence of drought shock generates significantly a negative impact on the GDP per capita at 5% level across the northern central Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger). Also, the lagged of the macroeconomic variables such as production, investment and inflation have respectively a significant and positive impact on consumption at 5% level, production at 5% level and consumption at 10% level. Furthermore, the results show an asymmetry of natural disaster shocks at the scale of the northern central Sahel States but these shocks are symmetrical in pairs. As a result, the appropriate policies must make to absorb these shocks and avoid any hysteresis effect.

Using digital technologies to improve agricultural production in the Sahel countries of West Africa

Using digital technologies to improve agricultural production in the Sahel countries of West Africa

Exploring the Potential of Soil and Water Conservation Measures for Climate Resilience in Burkina Faso

Sahelian countries including Burkina Faso face multiple challenges related to climatic conditions. Setting up effective disaster management plans is essential for protecting livelihoods and promoting sustainable development. Soil and water conservation measures (SWCMs) are emerging as key components of such plans, particularly in Burkina Faso. However, there is an insufficiency of studies exploring their potential as green infrastructures in the Sahelian context and this research aims to contribute to filling this gap. We used national data, remote sensing, and GIS tools to assess SWCM adoption and the potential for climate resilience. Stone ribbons emerged as the most widely adopted SWCM, covering 2322.4 km2 especially in the northern regions, while filtering dikes were the least widely adopted, at 126.4 km2. Twenty years of NDVI analysis showed a notable vegetation increase in Yatenga (0.075), Oudalan (0.073), and provinces with a high prevalence of SWCM practices. There was also an apparent increase in SWCM percentages from 60% of land degradation. Stone ribbons could have led to a runoff reduction of 13.4% in Bam province, highlighting their effectiveness in climate resilience and flood risk mitigation. Overall, encouraging the adoption of SWCMs offers a sustainable approach to mitigating climate-related hazards and promoting resilience in Sahelian countries such as Burkina Faso.

Technological Paradigm Between the Production of Photovoltaic and Thermal Solar Energy in Sahelo-Sahelian Countries

The energy sector in Sahelian countries such as Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger is facing enormous challenges. Indeed, electricity shortages, characterized by recurrent breakdowns of means of production and import dependency due to an unfavorable energy mix, are numerous in these countries. Concerns about the high costs of facilities and operations, as well as environmental pollution, not forgetting to mention the matter of the countries' energy sovereignty, have led to the desire to use reliable, profitable and adapted means of production. The aim of this study is to review the literature on electric power generation systems in the world, in Africa and in Sahelian countries, with an emphasis focus on photovoltaic and thermal solar energy. In addition, it highlights, in views of the problems raised, works that have suggested solutions. To achieve this, scientific articles, theses and other scientific documents dealing with electric power generation systems from 2014 to 2024 have been consulted. This enabled us to get knowledge on the various electric power generation systems, to know their advantages and limitations, and above all the perspectives in terms of electric power generation. Additionally, they provided a source of inspiration for setting up an electric power generation system in line with the realities of the countries of the Alliance of Sahel States (ASS).

STATE OF INFRASTRUCTURE, TECHNOLOGY AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS PROCESSING IN NIGERIA: THE MISSING LINK

Animal product and processing is a very important aspect of animal production and Nigeria is a major hub of animal product consumption in West Africa. It is also one of the largest livestock-raising countries in the region. Meeting the ever-increasing domestic demand and access to these flourishing markets are major status for Nigeria and for the neighboring Sahel countries that raise livestock. However, post-harvest processing and infrastructural management of the food production chain remains a major challenge. Some of the factors militating against successful animal products and processing amongst many include: need for trained human capital, low level of education, product safety and quality, effective communication, adoption of new knowledge, information and technology and lack of facilities. This paper aims at reviewing the state of infrastructure, technology and animal products and processing in Nigeria.

Assessing greywater characteristics in the sahel region and perception of the local population on its reuse in agriculture

Research on greywater reuse in water stressed areas is in full swing. However, the perception of greywater reuse is one of the least researched areas in West Africa, particularly in Sahelian countries. This study aimed to fills a significant gap in the existing literature, which has largely ignored the specific socio-demographic contexts of developing countries in the Sahelian regions. The study involved in-depth interviews with 240 rural households and the collection of 40 greywater samples in four locations for laboratory analysis. The survey focused on greywater management and household perceptions of greywater reuse in agriculture. The analyses focused on determining the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of greywater collected from households. The results showed that over 80 % of households discharged greywater into the natural environment without prior treatment. The majority of respondents were aware that poor greywater management poses a health risk. The results also showed an association between locality, gender, education level and perceptions of poor grey water management. Respondents were willing to accept the reuse of greywater in agriculture, to consume irrigated vegetables and to install a greywater treatment system. The quality analysis showed that the greywater was not in compliance with the legal discharge limits. This study highlights that in order to promote sustainable greywater management practices within households, it is important to design effective greywater treatment systems that meet the needs of the target population. Awareness campaigns, education and training programmes on wastewater management could also be established.

Collective Self-Reliance: Restarting the Concept in the Sahel in the Context of a Multipolarizing World Order

This article is devoted to restarting the concept of “Collective Self-Reliance” (CSR) taking into account the emergence of a multipolar world. Particular attention is paid to the attempts of African countries to get out of the center-periphery model of dependent development through the implementation of this concept. The theoretical foundations of the CSR concept, enshrined in the Arusha Declaration of 1967, the Arusha Program for Collective Self-Reliance and Framework for Negotiations of 1979, and in a number of documents of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the African Union (AU), are presented. The attitude towards CSR is shown in the works of Western experts, scholars from the USSR and Russia, as well as contemporary researchers from the former republics of Yugoslavia. Interpretations of the concept are given, based on the works of Johan Galtung, Samir Amin, and German experts. The practice of applying the concept in Burkina Faso and the neighboring countries, as well as in Tanzania, is shown. A critical analysis of the results of the implementation of the concept and the possibilities of its implementation in the modern realities of global capitalism was carried out. Particular attention is paid to the levels of implementation of the concept as well as the theory and practice of delinking – a temporary decoupling of economic ties with the countries of the “collective West”. It is concluded that, in the 2020s, multi-level implementation of the CSR concept (local, country level, Alliance of Sahel States level, “World Majority” level) seems even more realistic than at the time of its development. This is facilitated by the dominance of non-Western economies in the global framework, macrohistorical processes of decoupling, as well as the key role of the “World Majority” countries in the current economic ties of the Sahel countries. A limiting factor in this is the large-scale flow of Western aid to the region.

Quality assessment of oral antimalarial and antiretroviral medicines used by public health systems in Sahel countries

Malaria and Human Immunodeficiency Virus infections are among the top 10 causes of death in low income countries. Furthermore, many medicines used in these treatment areas are substandard, which contributes to the high death rate. Using a monitoring system to identify substandard and falsified medicines, the study aims to evaluate the quality of antimalarial and antiretroviral medicines in Sahel countries, assessing site conditions, compliance of medicines with pharmacopoeia tests, formulation equivalence with a reference medicine, and the influence of climate on quality attributes. Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography methods for eight active pharmaceutical ingredients were validated following the International Conference for Harmonization guideline for its detection and quantification. Quality control consists of visual inspections to detect any misinformation or imperfections and pharmacopeial testing to determine the quality of pharmaceutical products. Medicines which complied with uniformity dosage units and dissolution tests were stored under accelerated conditions for 6 months. Artemether/Lumefantrine and Lopinavir/Ritonavir formulations failed uniformity dosage units and disintegration tests respectively, detecting a total of 28.6% substandard medicines. After 6 months stored under accelerated conditions (40 °C // 75% relative humidity) simulating climatic conditions in Sahel countries, some medicines failed pharmacopeia tests. It demonstrated the influence of these two factors in their quality attributes. This study emphasizes the need of certified quality control laboratories as well as the need for regulatory systems to maintain standards in pharmaceutical manufacturing and distribution in these countries, especially when medicines are transported to rural areas where these climatic conditions are harsher.

Agriculture and Climate Change: A Socio-Economic Dynamics of Climate-Smart Practices in Oubritenga Province, Burkina Faso

The issue of farmers' resilience to climate and natural resource degradation remains a major concern in Sahelian countries, including Burkina Faso. The aim of this study is to analyze the dynamics of farming practices in the province of Oubritenga in Burkina Faso, highlighting similarities and differences in climate-smart practices. To do this, a mixed method (qualitative and quantitative) was used, combining surveys, individual interviews and focus groups. The results indicate that these practices were disseminated and adopted in Oubritenga province well before the 1980s, and that they have evolved in terms of adoption rates and improvements in recent years through research. The practices mentioned include sustainable land management (SLM), water and soil conservation practices/soil defense and restoration (WSC/SDR). Rural households are responding by adopting and reinforcing climate-smart farming practices that are considered more sustainable in the face of climate shock, soil degradation and greenhouse gas mitigation. It should be noted that other agricultural practices and techniques have been disseminated and adopted over time, in connection with mechanization and the promotion of technical production itineraries. This is a body of endogenous knowledge that coexists with technical production itineraries aimed at respecting the balance between nature and the well-being of living beings by integrating a sustainable land and environmental management system.

Good Health and Well-Being: An Assessment of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No.3 in the Sahel Countries

The article discusses issues related to the effectiveness of implementing sustainable development in the African Sahel region, with a particular focus on the third goal of this concept: good health and well-being. The study analyzes indicators characterizing Goal 3: ”Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”. Within this scope, nine specific objectives or tasks were identified, contributing to the overall objectives of the area. The research aims to assess the spatial differentiation of Sahel-region countries dynamically in terms of sustainable development indicators. In conclusion, the Sahel region requires clear support from the international community, and it is commendable that the UN Support Plan for the Sahel aims to intensify efforts for shared prosperity and lasting peace by implementing priorities to achieve the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development in the Sahel countries and the broader region.

The Effect of Violent Extremism on Local Conflicts and Vice Versa: Differences and Similarities among Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger

Research on violent extremism in Africa argues that jihadi insurgents exploit inter-ethnic cleavages and local grievances in order to recruit and gain support from the region because such political mobilisation leads to an escalation of clashes and violence among communal groups. On the other hand, local militias, especially those aided by governments, incite acts of anti-government terrorists. Using the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED) data set, we explore at which duration-area level the jihadist and militia attacks affect each other’s atrocities and how the effects vary in three Francophone Sahelian countries—Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. We find that violent acts by militias (or jihadists) tend to be reactive to terrorist attacks (or militia movements) rather than happening concurrently or against one another. More specifically, violent incidents by jihadi insurgents and local militias have an aggravating effect on each other’s violent acts in sub-regional administrative units over a week at the highest rate in Mali and Burkina Faso. Further, results from a cross-country analysis suggest that homegrown factors, including terrorist group rivalry, government responses to terrorism and self-defence militias’ intentions and determination, might affect how the jihadists’ exploitation of the cleavages and the growing challenges posed by ethnic militias to the extremists exacerbate the situation.

Influence of Soil Parameters and Sowing Technics on Different Genotypes of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.). R. Br

Productivity improvement by adapting varieties to their environment was a major concern in the Sahel countries. Climatic constraints and low soil fertility are the main factors conditioning millet yield. The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of edaphic parameters, sowing technics, and fertilization on the improvement of eight genotypes of millet. For this, a trial including eight varieties of millet in split plot was installed on the experimental station of CERRA in Maradi in 2020 during the rainy season. Soil samples at a depth of 20 cm were collected at the beginning and the end of experiment. Soil pH, organic carbon, and assimilable phosphorus were determined. Two sowing technics, seed balls, and direct sowing were applied. In seed balls, two types of fertilizer were used: the NPK (15-15-15) and ash. Phenology parameters and grain yield of each variety was measured. A statistical analysis of these data showed that edaphic parameters do not significantly influence yield. However, a significant variation in grain yield was observed among genotypes. Specifically, the variety ICMV IS 89305 exhibited a significantly higher grain yield (789 +/- 590 kg ha-1) compared to ICVH 18 (348+/-289 kg ha-1). Moreover, the different types of treatments applied to the seedlings showed a significant difference in terms of grain yield. The SSB treatments yielded more (1101+/-541 kg ha-1) than the BSC (480+/-463 kg ha-1) and BSE (317+/-322 kg ha-1) ball treatments. These results highlight substantial variability both within and between treatments. The positive effect of seed balls and fertilizer included vary according to the context. Specifically, when rainfall is scarce, seed balls prove to be non-efficient in improving the yield of millet.

Dynamiques inclusives, vecteurs de régularisation du droit à l’éducation scolaire des enfants au centre du Mali : des éléments de repère.

Since 2012, insecurity and violence fueled by multiple vulnerabilities have rapidly spread to Mali and other Sahel countries, leading to an unprecedented humanitarian crisis in these countries (Jean Claude Ndabananiye, 2021). These security crises have affected the education sector in particular. This article formulates options for regularizing the right to school education for children in central Mali. We adopted a mixed methodology (quantitative and qualitative). At the end of data collection we had the following results. In Ténenkou 93.6% of teachers find that educational establishments destroyed by armed or jihadist groups must be rehabilitated. In the Mopti district 54.7% of heads of household affirm that NGOs have provided support with school kits to students. In the Bankass circle, 76.9% of teachers believe that setting up a support course program would be an optimal solution to remedy the difficulties children face. In Douentza, 78.7% of respondents think that the establishment of a mixed program (classical and Koranic school) would be an optimal solution for regularizing schools in central Mali.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention.

Seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMC) for children under 5 years of age for up to four monthly cycles during malaria transmission season was recommended by the WHO in 2012 and has been implemented in 13 countries in the Sahel, reaching more than 30 million children annually. Malaria control programs implementing SMC have asked the WHO to consider expanding the age range or number of monthly cycles. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of SMC among children up to 15 years of age and up to six monthly cycles. Twelve randomized studies were included, with outcomes stratified by age (< 5/≥ 5 years), by three or four versus five or six cycles, and by drug where possible. Drug regimens included sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine + amodiaquine, amodiaquine-artesunate, and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine + artesunate. Included studies were all conducted in Sahelian countries in which high-grade resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine was rare and in zones with parasite prevalence ranging from 1% to 79%. Seasonal malaria chemoprevention resulted in substantial reductions in uncomplicated malaria incidence measured during that transmission season (rate ratio: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.25-0.29 among children < 5 years; rate ratio: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.25-0.30 among children ≥ 5 years) and in the prevalence of malaria parasitemia measured within 4-6 weeks from the final SMC cycle (risk ratio: 0.38, 95% CI: 0.34-0.43 among children < 5 years; risk ratio: 0.23, 95% CI: 0.11-0.48 among children ≥ 5 years). In high-transmission zones, SMC resulted in a moderately reduced risk of any anemia (risk ratio: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.72-0.83 among children < 5 years; risk ratio: 0.70, 95% CI: 0.52-0.95 among children ≥ 5 years [one study]). Children < 10 years of age had a moderate reduction in severe malaria (risk ratio: 0.53, 95% CI: 0.37-0.76) but no evidence of a mortality reduction. The evidence suggests that in areas in which sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and amodiaquine remained efficacious, SMC effectively reduced malaria disease burden among children both < 5 and ≥ 5 years old and that the number of cycles should be commensurate with the length of the transmission season, up to six cycles.

Increasing the uptake of Intermittent Preventive Treatment of malaria in pregnancy using Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP) through seasonal malaria chemoprevention channel delivery: protocol of a multicenter cluster randomized implementation trial in Mali and Burkina Faso

BackgroundThe uptake of Intermittent Preventive Treatment of malaria in pregnancy using Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP) remains unacceptably low, with more than two-thirds of pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa still not accessing the three or more doses recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). In contrast, the coverage of Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention (SMC), a more recent strategy recommended by the WHO for malaria prevention in children under five years living in Sahelian countries with seasonal transmission, including Mali and Burkina-Faso, is high (up to 90%). We hypothesized that IPTp-SP delivery to pregnant women through SMC alongside antenatal care (ANC) will increase IPTp-SP coverage, boost ANC attendance, and increase public health impact. This protocol describes the approach to assess acceptability, feasibility, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of the integrated strategy.Methods and analysisThis is a multicentre, cluster-randomized, implementation trial of IPTp-SP delivery through ANC + SMC vs ANC alone in 40 health facilities and their catchment populations (20 clusters per arm). The intervention will consist of monthly administration of IPTp-SP through four monthly rounds of SMC during the malaria transmission season (July to October), for two consecutive years. Effectiveness of the strategy to increase coverage of three or more doses of IPTp-SP (IPTp3 +) will be assessed using household surveys and ANC exit interviews. Statistical analysis of IPT3 + and four or more ANC uptake will use a generalized linear mixed model. Feasibility and acceptability will be assessed through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with health workers, pregnant women, and women with a child < 12 months.DiscussionThis multicentre cluster randomized implementation trial powered to detect a 45% and 22% increase in IPTp-SP3 + uptake in Mali and Burkina-Faso, respectively, will generate evidence on the feasibility, acceptability, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of IPTp-SP delivered through the ANC + SMC channel. The intervention is designed to facilitate scalability and translation into policy by leveraging existing resources, while strengthening local capacities in research, health, and community institutions. Findings will inform the local national malaria control policies.Trial registrationRetrospectively registered on August 11th, 2022; registration # PACTR202208844472053.Protocol v4.0 dated September 04, 2023.Trail sponsor: University of Sciences Techniques and Technologies of Bamako (USTTB), Mali.