Countries In Central America Research Articles

Associations between seasonal influenza and meteorological parameters in Costa Rica, Honduras and Nicaragua.

Seasonal influenza affects a considerable proportion of the global population each year. We assessed the association between subnational influenza activity and temperature, specific humidity and rainfall in three Central America countries, i.e. Costa Rica, Honduras and Nicaragua. Using virologic data from each country's national influenza centre, rainfall from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission and air temperature and specific humidity data from the Global Land Data Assimilation System, we applied logistic regression methods for each of the five sub-national locations studied. Influenza activity was represented by the weekly proportion of respiratory specimens that tested positive for influenza. The models were adjusted for the potentially confounding co-circulating respiratory viruses, seasonality and previous weeks' influenza activity. We found that influenza activity was proportionally associated (P<0.05) with specific humidity in all locations [odds ratio (OR) 1.21-1.56 per g/kg], while associations with temperature (OR 0.69-0.81 per °C) and rainfall (OR 1.01-1.06 per mm/day) were location-dependent. Among the meteorological parameters, specific humidity had the highest contribution (~3-15%) to the model in all but one location. As model validation, we estimated influenza activity for periods, in which the data was not used in training the models. The correlation coefficients between the estimates and the observed were ≤0.1 in 2 locations and between 0.6-0.86 in three others. In conclusion, our study revealed a proportional association between influenza activity and specific humidity in selected areas from the three Central America countries.

Cephalopods of Pacific Latin America

Cephalopod fisheries have experienced outstanding growth in Latin America during the last quarter century, increasing from 0.5% to 7% of total Latin American landings since 1990. Its waters account today for a third of world cephalopod catches, with about two-thirds of this total being landed by Latin American countries and the remainder by East Asian countries. The ommastrephid squids Dosidicus gigas and Illex argentinus have led catches worldwide, while Doryteuthis gahi is the most important loliginid. Mexico, Peru, Chile, Argentina and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) account for 98% of landings in the region. Pacific waters account for 60% of cephalopod landings in Latin America. Mexico, Peru and Chile account for virtually all landings from the Pacific. This has been largely achieved through switching the targets of national fishing fleets to squid. There are a variety of directed fisheries for octopus, some of which raise concerns about sustainability. Most landings are exported to East Asia and Europe, but local cephalopod supply has increased. Aquaculture research on octopus in Chile is experiencing a mayor advance with international impact.Cephalopod research in Latin America is progressing in response developments in the fishing industry, especially in Mexico, Peru, and Chile. Nevertheless, cephalopod consumption is still relatively low and fisheries in these countries all depend strongly on foreign markets. In the smaller countries of Central America, as well as Colombia and Ecuador, cephalopods remain negligible as a marine resource.

The Central American Competitiveness Initiative

Purpose – This paper is a historical account of the process by which Michael Porter and INCAE Business School put together a regional competitiveness strategy for Central America that was officially adopted by the governments of five participating countries, and implemented through a series of Presidential Summits that occurred between 1995 and 1999. The paper provides a unique case study on the adoption of the concepts put forth by Porter in his book “The Competitive Advantage of Nations” (1990) at the highest level of government. The study arrives at a series of practical implications for policy makers that are particularly relevant for the implementation of supra-national regional strategies. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conduct an extensive literature review of 190 policy papers produced by INCAE Business School, that are used to recreate the historical evolution of the regional competitiveness strategy. The effect of Porter’s intervention is also assessed by comparing the main economic indicators of each participating country with those of 2005-2010. One of the authors was the main protagonist in the successful implementation of the strategy, and the paper relies partially on his accounts of events. Findings – This study describes how economic policy in Central America was profoundly influenced by Michael Porter’s thinking in the second half of the 1990s. These policy changes promoted international competition of Central American clusters and firms, and opened the region for international investment and tourism. The region experienced important increases in its economic integration, its international trade, foreign direct investment and tourist arrivals. Gross domestic product growth was accelerated in Honduras and Nicaragua. Research limitations/implications – Like all case studies, this study has limits related to the generalizability of its conclusions. Additionally, it is not possible to determine the precise nature of the relation between the implementation of the regional economic strategy, and the impact on economic growth, integration, FDI attraction and exports. Practical implications – The paper has several practical implications that relate to the design of regional economic strategies. First, it identifies policy areas that are more effective as part of regional strategies, and distinguishes them from those that should be resolved at the national level. Second, it suggests a process that can facilitate execution. Finally, it provides an example of the coordinating role that can be assumed by an academic institution such as INCAE. Originality/value – The Central American Competitiveness Initiative provides a unique setting to study the implementation of competitiveness policy for several reasons. First, in all countries in Central America, Michael Porter’s diamond framework (1990) and cluster theory were officially adopted at the highest level of government. Second, in addition to their individual competitiveness strategies, all countries adopted a regional strategy for cooperation and economic integration. Finally, the Central American Competitiveness Initiative was founded on one of the first competitiveness think tanks of the world.

Contesting trade in Central America: market reform and resistance. By Rose J. Spalding

The onset of neo-liberalism in Latin America in the 1980s and 1990s has attracted considerable scholarly attention, as has the subsequent reaction against it in the first decade of the new century, epitomized by the election of a range of left-wing governments and their ostensible rejection or modification of the once sacrosanct economic prescriptions of the Washington Consensus. Few studies consider the period as a whole and fewer still have brought the countries of Central America within their purview. Political scientist Rose Spalding's new book is thus doubly welcome for charting, in one volume, the rise and decline of fundamentalist market reform in a region that has always been more heavily influenced by the asymmetric power of the United States than the larger countries of South America. This is also the first work to examine in any detail the negotiation in 2003–2004 of the Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) with the United States (to which the Dominican Republic has also acceded), the embodiment of the region's move towards a more open economy, and the counter-movement that it engendered due to its profound socio-economic ramifications.

Epidemiology and characteristics of gastric cancer in national cancer institute of Panama from the years 2007 to 2011.

e15007 Background: Gastric cancer showed substantial decrease in mortality in recent years, this propias1 their geographical variations. The lowest rates were observed in Southern and Western Europe, USA, Canada and some countries in Central America, including Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico. The highest rates were found Russia, Eastern and Central Europe, Japan, Korea and some countries of Latin America, including Chile, Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador. The Gastric cancer represents the fourth most common cancer and the second leading cause of death in worldwide. Methods: Retrospective observational study is performed, features are evaluated from the year 2008-2012, physical files used and / or electronic. Data using the survey form (Appendix) were collected; data were tabulated and analyzed by SPSS version 22.0. Results: 816 new cases of gastric cancer with histopathological review of the national cancer institute, 328 (40%) cases were found to be gastric adenocarcinoma, from the years 2007 to 2011, according to histopathologic subtype were recorded 34.5% were diffuse, 39.9% intestinal, 19 9% indeterminate and marked overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2) 0.3%. 57.9% was recorded in the population between 61-80 years of age ( > 81 years 20.4%), 65.2% were male and 32.9% female; 92.1% of patients were classified into the mestizo ethnic group, 4.0% Caucasian, 2.4% Indian and 1.5% Black. Only blood type 30.5% of patients, 21.3% of registered registered were type B, 4.9% to 2.7% and 0.9% O type AB. Panama city was the major referral center 33.5%, 15.9% Veraguas and Cocle 12.2%. Conclusions: Today in Panama does not have an accurate record for the cancer , this study seeks to resolve certain questions regarding epidemiological behavior of gastric cancer in our country and its impact on decision- desciones for treatment.

Latin American Agriculture in a World of Trade Agreements

AbstractLatin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries are members of 29 distinct free trade agreements with other Latin American partners, and 44 such agreements exist between an LAC country and other countries. Among the LAC countries linked by an Free Trade Agreement (FTA), a large percentage of trade is already duty free though many trade barriers in agriculture persist. There is a significant difference in the trade patterns among the LAC countries. The Southern Cone countries, for example, have extensive agricultural exports to Asia and to the European Union (EU), and have few FTAs with regional countries. By contrast, countries in Central America and the Andean region have extensive trade agreements with each other, and have fewer exports outside the region. Meanwhile, other regions are negotiating ambitious mega‐agreements, particularly the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP) and the Trans‐Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T‐TIP). These could have significant impacts on the region, including trade diversion and preference erosion in major import markets. Several possible avenues exist for Latin American countries to accomplish the following: counter the impact of a TPP and T‐TIP on agricultural exports; strengthen existing bilateral trade agreements within the region; link existing multi‐country agreements such as Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR) and the Pacific Alliance to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); consolidate the current trade agreements with the EU; or “sign on” to the TPP. This last option would be more attractive if China were to become a TPP participant. If China is not interested in joining the TPP, then for some countries a direct FTA with China could be contemplated.

Child health in Central America and the Caribbean

Central America consists of seven mainland countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama. The Caribbean Sea contains over a thousand islands. Many of the islands are...

Los Pipitos: A Stepping Stone to Inclusive Education in Nicaragua

Nicaragua is the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Western Hemisphere (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). This means that the Nicaraguan government is able to deliver only the most basic level of education services within the country's public system. Classrooms are overcrowded and materials and equipment are scarce. Laguna (as cited in Delkamiller, Swain, Leader-Janssen, & Ritzman, 2013) states that of all countries in Central America, Nicaragua spends the least on education—an average of 42 dollars per pupil per year. The Nicaragua Children's Foundation (NCF), a small non-profit organization registered and based in Canada, was established in 2006 to address the needs of children in public schools beyond what the Nicaraguan government is currently able to meet. These needs include, of course, those of Nicaraguan children with varying physical and mental disabilities.The prevalence of disability in Nicaragua is 12.5%, as indicated by a CIA study done in 2012 (as cited in Thomas, n.d.). Due to public schools' limitations and pervasive cultural beliefs, these children generally do not attend school. Of course, the broader question of how to provide education to special needs children is not unique to Nicaragua; countries around the world struggle with issues of special attention versus inclusiveness and the appropriate allocation of scarce resources. A variety of non-governmental or religious organizations implement many of the programs that serve these more vulnerable groups (Guijarro, 2000). One example of this type of program is community-based rehabilitation. Another is the development of schools for children with special needs. The NCF joined these non-governmental organizations with the establishment of its school for the disabled, Los Pipitos, in 2008.

Human health implications from co-exposure to aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize-based foods in Latin America: Guatemala as a case study

Co-occurrence of fumonisin B1 (FB1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in maize has been demonstrated in many surveys. Combined-exposure to FB1 and AFB1 was of concern to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives because of the known genotoxicity of AFB1 and the ability of FB1 to induce regenerative proliferation in target tissues. Humans living where maize is a dietary staple are at high risk for exposure to both mycotoxins. Our work has focused on Guatemala, a country in Central America where maize is consumed in large amounts every day and where intake of FB1 has been shown to be potentially quite high using biomarker-based studies. In 2012 a survey was conducted which analysed maize samples for FB1 and AFB1 from all 22 departments of Guatemala. The results show that the levels of AFB1 exposure are also potentially quite high in Guatemala, and likely throughout Central America and Mexico. The implications of co-exposure for human health are numerous, but one area of particular concern is the potential of FB1 to modulate AFB1 hepatoxicity and/or hepatocarcinogenicity. Both the mechanism of action of FB1 and its ability to promote liver carcinogenicity in rats and rainbow trout is consistent with this concern. In farm and laboratory animals FB1 inhibits ceramide synthases, key enzymes inde novo ceramide biosynthesis. The inhibition of sphingolipid signalling pathways mediating programmed cell death and activation of pathways stimulating cell proliferation in livers of individuals exposed to AFB1 could contribute to the tumorigenicity of AFB1. Studies investigating the health effects of either toxin should consider the potential for co-exposure to both toxins. Also, in countries where maize-based food are prepared by alkaline treatment of the maize kernels, the effect of traditional processing on AFB1 levels and toxicity needs to be determined, especially for maize highly contaminated with AFB1.

Unaccompanied Migrant Children from Central America: Context, Causes, and Responses

This paper offers a comprehensive orientation to the recent surge in migration to the United States by unaccompanied children and families from the Northern Triangle countries of Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. To inform advocates and others working on behalf of these new arrivals, this report seeks to: 1) Set the unprecedented expansion in the number of youth and family border crossings in the context of long-term migration trends from the region; 2) Present a detailed account of the country conditions (“push factors”) driving the exodus of Central American minors and families; and 3) Consider new arrivals’ prospects for remaining in the U.S. in light of available forms of deportation relief as well as current policy and advocacy responses.

First Report of the Eriophyoid MiteAbacarus doctus(Prostigmata: Eriophyidae) Infesting Sugarcane in El Salvador

This is the first report of Abacarus doctus Navia & Flechtmann in El Salvador and the second report of this species in the world. Morphological variability between Salvadoran population and the type material is pointed out and detailed studies are suggested to allow a better understanding of this variability with regard to Eriophyoidea systematics. Field observations on A. doctus infestations in El Salvador are presented, and the need for further studies of its status as a pest in El Salvador and on its possible occurrence in other sugarcane-producing countries in Central America are elaborated.

El rol de la Revista Geológica de América Central en la difusión de vulcanología entre 1984 y 2014

Desde 1984 cuando aparece el primer numero de la Revista Geologica de America Central (RGAC) hasta el presente (N.° 50, 2014), se han emitido 50 numeros y un volumen especial sin numeracion. Los topicos de vulcanologia que mas se repiten en orden preferencial son los de estratigrafia volcanica, petrologia, geomorfologia y vigilancia volcanica. Los trabajos de vulcanologia representan un 22 % del total de trabajos presentados en la RGAC y en 30 anos se han publicado 86 trabajos a una razon de 2,8 trabajos por ano. Quizas dicha tematica solo es superada por los de estratigrafia en general, dado que se le sumarian los de estratigrafia volcanica, tefroestratigrafia y radiocronologia. A partir del 2004 se nota un despunte en los trabajos de vulcanologia, con la aparicion de varios numeros que contienen 40 paginas o mas relacionadas con vulcanologia. De los 51 numeros de la RGAC en 30 anos, tres fueron volumenes especiales sobre Vulcanologia (N.° 30, 2000; N.° 43, 2010 y N.° 48, 2013). La mayoria de los trabajos estan relacionados con Costa Rica (88 %), existiendo muy pocos trabajos del resto de los paises de America Central y ninguno de Guatemala. La tarea de incentivar publicaciones o notas geologicas sobre vulcanologia y en general de geologia en el resto de America Central esta pendiente. Dicha labor no es facil de subsanar, debido a una serie de limitantes, en particular de personal academico. El reto para las generaciones futuras es el de mantener y superar estas marcas y metas hasta ahora impuestas a nivel nacional en lo que se refiere a trabajos de vulcanologia

Effectiveness of Behavior Change Communications for Reducing Transmission Risks Among People Living with HIV in 6 Countries in Central America.

This first region-wide study (N = 2,818) aims to estimate prevalence of HIV-related risks (sexual behavior, HIV disclosure, number of sex partners, violence) and factors associated with these risks as well as evaluate a behavior change communications program targeted to PLHIV in 6 countries in Central America. After 2 years, the program achieved moderate coverage, with 21 % of the sample reporting exposure to interpersonal communications (IPC) and 52 % to mass media program components. The odds of condom use, HIV disclosure, and participation in a self-help group increased by 1.4–1.8 times with exposure to mass media. Exposure to IPC increased odds of condom use by 2.7 and participation in self-help groups by 4.4 times. In addition, being in HIV care or taking ART was associated with condom use and HIV-status disclosure. About 30 % experienced physical or sexual violence, and those who did were 4 times less likely to use condoms. Findings suggest that behavioral interventions for PLHIV can reduce HIV-transmission risks and increase access to care.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10461-014-0910-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Research for better health: the Panamanian priority-setting experience and the need for a new process.

BackgroundPanama is, economically, the fastest growing country in Central America and is making efforts to improve management mechanisms for research and innovation. However, due to contextual factors, the Panamanian Health Research System is not well developed and is poorly coordinated with the Health System. Likewise, despite recent efforts to define a National Health Research Agenda, implementing this agenda and aligning it with Panamanians’ health needs remains difficult. This articles aims to review Panama’s experience in health research priority setting by analyzing the fairness of previous prioritization processes in order to promote an agreed-upon national agenda aligned with public health needs.MethodsThe three health research prioritization processes performed in Panama between 2006 and 2011 were analyzed based on the guidelines established by the four “Accountability for Reasonableness” principles, namely “relevance”, “publicity”, “revision”, and “enforcement”, which provide a framework for evaluating priority-setting fairness.ResultsThe three health research priority-setting events performed in Panama during the reference period demonstrated a heterogeneous pattern of decision-making strategies, stakeholder group composition, and prioritization outcomes. None of the three analyzed events featured an open discussion process with the scientific community, health care providers, or civil society in order to reach consensus.ConclusionsThis investigation makes evident the lack of a strategy to encourage open discussion by the multiple stakeholders and interest groups that should be involved during the priority-setting process. The analysis reveals the need for a new priority-setting exercise that validates the National Agenda, promotes its implementation by the National Secretariat for Science, Technology and Innovation in conjunction with the Ministry of Health, and empowers multiple stakeholders; such an exercise would, in turn, favor the implementation of the agenda.

The triangle of poverty, economic growth, and inequality in Central America: does tourism matter?

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the link between tourism, economic growth, inequality, and poverty reduction in the five countries of Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua).Design/methodology/approach– The study represents the first application of panel data modeling of poverty, economic growth and inequality as related to Central America. Unbalanced panel data are employed for the five Central America countries for the period 1980-2012.Findings– The findings reveal three results: the relationship between poverty, inequality and economic growth varies relatively very little for different measures of economic growth; the null hypothesis that economic growth and inequality does not matter is rejected at the 1 percent level, and the coefficients are highly significant and with the expected signs; tourism matters for poverty reduction in Central America.Originality/value– The paper represents the first application of panel data modeling poverty, economic growth, inequality, and tourism development in the context of Central America. Additionally, the study puts together the largest number of comparable observations on poverty, income, and income distribution for Central America during the period 1980-2012.

Inequidades en enfermedades cardiovasculares en Latinoamérica

In high-income countries, social inequalities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk are well-documented. Although Latin America has a rich history of theory and conceptual discussion regarding social inequalities in health, empirical research has been more limited. In this commentary we summarize recent empirical work on social inequalities in CVD risk in Latin America, and highlight key research needs as well as implications for prevention. Although much remains unknown about the social patterning of CVD in Latin America, the limited studies to date indicate that inequalities in CVD risk vary across populations and markers of socioeconomic position, as well as disease risk marker. The strongest social inequalities are seen among women, and in urban areas, with regards to obesity, diabetes, and diet. Few studies, though, have been conducted in some parts of Latin America, including the countries of Central America and northern South America. Vital registration systems and nationally-representative risk factor surveys can be important sources of data, as long as information on socioeconomic indicators is collected. Longitudinal studies will also be important for investigating factors driving social inequalities. As policies and prevention strategies are put into place to reduce CVD in Latin America, they must also address factors generating social inequalities in CVD risk.

Macroeconomic Fluctuations Under Natural Disaster Shocks in Central America and the Caribbean

This paper examines the role of disaster shock in a one-sector, representative agent dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model (DSGE). First, it estimates a panel vector autoregresive (VAR) model for output, investment, trade balance, consumption, and country spread to capture the economic effects of output, country risk, and exogenous natural disaster shocks. The study determines the empirical dynamic responses of ten Caribbean countries and seven countries in Central America. Second, by taking into account rare events and trend shocks, this paper also provides a baseline framework of the dynamic interactions between the macroeconomic effects of rare events and financial friction for two specific countries: Barbados and Belize. Similar findings between empirical and general frameworks show that disaster shocks in Central America and the Caribbean have only a significative impact in the short-run regional business cycle. The findings show that Caribbean countries are better prepared for natural disaster shocks.

Repellence produced by monoterpenes on Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) decreases after continuous exposure to these compounds.

Botanical monoterpenes are secondary metabolites present in essential oils produced by plants. Some of them are insect repellents. The bloodsucking bug Rhodnius prolixus Ståhl (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) is one of the main vectors of Chagas disease in the north of South America and some countries in Central America. In this study, we studied the repellence produced by two monoterpenes, menthyl acetate and geraniol, on fifth instar nymphs of R. prolixus . In the absence of other stimuli, both menthyl acetate and geraniol produced a repellent effect from 740 μg/cm 2 and 74 μg/cm 2 , respectively. Pre-exposure to each monoterpene reduced the repellent activity produced by the same substance. Additionally, pre-exposure to one monoterpene decreased the behavioral response of the nymphs to the other one. The repellent effect of both monoterpenes also decreased when nymphs’ antennae were previously treated with the nitric oxide donor S-nitroso-N-acetyl-cysteine.

Access to medicines for acute illness in middle income countries in Central America

OBJECTIVETo analyze the main predictors of access to medicines for persons who experienced acute health conditions.METHODSThis was a cross-sectional analytic study, based on data from household surveys. We examined the predictors of: (1) seeking care for acute illness in the formal health care system and (2) obtaining all medicines sought for the acute condition.RESULTSThe significant predictors of seeking health care for acute illnesses were urban geographic location, head of household with secondary school education or above, age under 15, severity of illness perceived by the respondent, and having health insurance. The most important predictor of obtaining full access to medicines was seeking care in the formal health care system. People who sought care in the formal system were three times more likely to receive all the medicines sought (OR 3.0, 95%CI 2.3;4.0). For those who sought care in the formal health system, the strongest predictors of full access to medicines were seeking care in the private sector, having secondary school education or above, and positive perceptions of quality of health care and medicines in public sector health facilities. For patients who did not seek care in the formal health system, full access to medicines was more likely in Honduras or Nicaragua than in Guatemala. Urban geographic location, higher economic status, and male gender were also significant predictors.CONCLUSIONSA substantial part of the population in these three countries sought and obtained medicines outside of the formal health care system, which may compromise quality of care and pose a risk to patients. Determinants of full access to medicines inside and outside the formal health care system differ, and thus may require different strategies to improve access to medicines.

Access to medicines for acute illness in middle income countries in Central America

OBJECTIVE : To analyze the main predictors of access to medicines for persons who experienced acute health conditions. METHODS : This was a cross-sectional analytic study, based on data from household surveys. We examined the predictors of: (1) seeking care for acute illness in the formal health care system and (2) obtaining all medicines sought for the acute condition. RESULTS : The significant predictors of seeking health care for acute illnesses were urban geographic location, head of household with secondary school education or above, age under 15, severity of illness perceived by the respondent, and having health insurance. The most important predictor of obtaining full access to medicines was seeking care in the formal health care system. People who sought care in the formal system were three times more likely to receive all the medicines sought (OR 3.0, 95%CI 2.3;4.0). For those who sought care in the formal health system, the strongest predictors of full access to medicines were seeking care in the private sector, having secondary school education or above, and positive perceptions of quality of health care and medicines in public sector health facilities. For patients who did not seek care in the formal health system, full access to medicines was more likely in Honduras or Nicaragua than in Guatemala. Urban geographic location, higher economic status, and male gender were also significant predictors. CONCLUSIONS : A substantial part of the population in these three countries sought and obtained medicines outside of the formal health care system, which may compromise quality of care and pose a risk to patients. Determinants of full access to medicines inside and outside the formal health care system differ, and thus may require different strategies to improve access to medicines.