Counter-terrorism Response Research Articles

“Hot Forests”: Spatial Concentration of Forest “Pyro-Terrorism” in Israel

AbstractOne of the areas in terrorism research that has not been adequately examined is the geographic concentration of pyro-terrorism (PT) attacks. The literature related to the geographical distribution of terror generally focuses on macro-places (continents, countries and regions) and micro-places – “hot spots”. However, to our knowledge, the geographical distribution of terror in forests has yet to be studied. The findings of “hot spots” studies have great relevance for law enforcement practitioners. This study examines the spatial characteristics of forest PT and whether there is a concentration of PT attacks in a limited number of “hot forests” that are stable over time. This study examined the entire population of suspected forest PT in Israel between 2008 and 2022 (excluding 2016), totalling 2,297 attacks. The research revealed high spatial clustering of forest PT attacks concentrated in specific “hot forests” and that they were stable over time. In conclusion, the concentration of PT attacks calls for a specialized counterterrorism response, equivalent to “hot spots policing”, based on the characteristics of potential terrorist hot forests.

International and local NGOs addressing violent and hateful extremism in Kenya

ABSTRACT A string of terror attacks in Kenya in the late 2000s necessitated robust counter terrorism responses by the Government. The Washington-led countering violent extremism strategy in 2011 came as a salvage tool for countering violent extremism programmes in Kenya and beyond. In September 2016, the government of Kenya launched the National Strategy for Countering Violent Extremism in line with the call promoted by international development partners and INGOs for softer preventative approaches. Drawing on extensive fieldwork in Kenya 2015–2021, the article examines the evolving top-down, international and national framings of the term ‘violent extremism’ and its mitigation within prevention and countering violent extremism (PCVE) programming. The article sheds light on the evolving threat of violent extremism (VE) and looks at contributions broader VE definitions can include, notably violent and hateful extremism addressing hatred and hate speech, toxic identity politics, misogyny, stigmatisation and marginalisation in PCVE initiatives.

Legal, Regulatory and Technical Responses to Terrorism in the Aviation Industry in Kenya

The impact of terrorists’ acts against the civil aviation industry cannot be gainsaid. It exerts immense pressure on the national and human security of many nations. Regrettably, there has been a barrage of terrorist attacks against aircraft and airport installations since the dawn of powered passenger flight. The study sought to examine the legal, regulatory and Technical responses to terrorism in the aviation industry in Kenya and employed the exploratory research design. Secondary data was collected from government publications, websites, internal records and reports, conference proceedings, research articles, and books, among others. The data collected were analysed thematically. From the study finding, it is evident that aviation security became a challenge, especially in the 1960s following an increase in the number of terrorist attacks in the industry. ICAO’s legal, regulatory and technical responses through international conventions and protocols to address the challenge were reactionary in nature especially in the period before the 9/11 US attacks. A review of their ineffectiveness called for responses that were more proactive and preventive in nature, as a better solution in mitigating terrorism in the industry. This called for the need for cooperation among various security supporting agencies in many states’ aviation industries. Presently, there are extensive counterterrorism responses employed in Kenya. These include legal, regulatory, and technical multiagency responses frameworks. Based on the study findings, the study makes the following recommendations. First and foremost, there is a need to undertake training for security personnel to better implement the legal, regulatory, and technical responses. There should also be an effort to strengthen the capacities of agencies to better respond to terrorism threats in the aviation industry through legislation, training, and funding interventions.

Legal, Regulatory and Technical Responses to Terrorism in the Aviation Industry in Kenya

The impact of terrorists’ acts against the civil aviation industry cannot be gainsaid. It exerts immense pressure on the national and human security of many nations. Regrettably, there has been a barrage of terrorist attacks against aircraft and airport installations since the dawn of powered passenger flight. The study sought to examine the legal, regulatory and Technical responses to terrorism in the aviation industry in Kenya and employed the exploratory research design. Secondary data was collected from government publications, websites, internal records and reports, conference proceedings, research articles, and books, among others. The data collected were analyzed thematically. From the study finding, it is evident that aviation security became a challenge, especially in the 1960s following an increase in the number of terrorist attacks in the industry. ICAO’s legal, regulatory, and technical responses through international conventions and protocols to address the challenge were reactionary especially in the period before the 9/11 US attacks. A review of their ineffectiveness called for responses that were more proactive and preventive, as a better solution in mitigating terrorism in the industry. This called for the need for cooperation among various security supporting agencies in many states’ aviation industries. Presently, there are extensive counterterrorism responses employed in Kenya. These include legal, regulatory, and technical multiagency response frameworks. Based on the study findings, the study makes the following recommendations. First and foremost, there is a need to undertake training for security personnel to better implement the legal, regulatory, and technical responses. There should also be an effort to strengthen the capacities of agencies to better respond to terrorism threats in the aviation industry through legislation, training, and funding interventions.

Трансформация антитеррористического права России в условиях глобализации

The article shows the creation and development of modern antiterrorism legislation in the Russian Federation. It is noted that the period of its formation coincided with the involvement of the post-Soviet Russian Federation in the process of globalisation, an inherent feature of which is the integration and unification of the legal systems and national legislations of individual states. According to the author, convergence of national anti-terrorist legislation of those states involved in countering transnational, global international terrorist organizations, such as the Islamic State banned in the Russian Federation, seems particularly important. The process of adjustment of the Russian national legal system to needs of counteraction to terrorism (external and internal), its transformation both taking into account features of the international, and foreign legal experience of counteraction to terrorism is considered. The current strengthening of responsibility for terrorist crimes in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation in many cases should be seen as a manifestation of global trends in combating terrorism. Not only the tightening of sanctions for terrorist activity, but also the addition of new anti-terrorist norms to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation is proposed to be regarded as one of the results of integration processes in national law. Despite the steps taken to transform Russian counter-terrorism legislation, its approximation and integration with international and foreign law, the process of globalisation in this field is not complete. It is concluded that the transformation of the Russian Federation's anti-terrorism law (the relevant counter-terrorism legislation and the relevant criminal law norms) must be continued in order to further its involvement in the effective counter-terrorism response in general - international law in the first place. Terrorism has long ceased to be perceived as a local threat, so the internationalisation of counter-terrorism is one of the manifestations of globalisation in law. However, globalisation, which is a catalyst for the convergence of legal systems and national legislations, does not mean that the transformation of national law must necessarily lead to the dismantling of legal institutions and traditions successfully applied in the practice of law enforcement agencies and courts of states. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

How Do Individuals Join the Al-Shabaab? An Ethnographic Insight into Recruitment Models for the Al-Shabaab Network in Kenya

ABSTRACT Al-Shabaab employs diverse strategies to recruit and radicalize youth to the network. The Social Movement Theory is used to assess recruitment models for terrorist networks such as the Al-Shabaab. Five models are explored to understand the evolving recruitment trends for the Al-Shabaab network from 2007 to 2019: the net, funnel, infiltrator, intimidation, and for-profit motives. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork of selected 47 cases of individuals associated with the Al-Shabaab, the study recognizes the role of kinship networks, social relationships between the recruiter and the recruited, group dynamics, and recruitment spaces as crucial in Al-Shabaab recruitment. The study offers insights into the evolving recruitment strategies of terrorist organizations navigating counter-terrorism responses in the aftermath of terror attacks at the Westgate Mall and the Garissa University attacks in Kenya.

Assessing the impact of terrorism and counter-terrorism on public perceptions among ethnic minorities in Kenya

ABSTRACT Since the Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) launched their military offensive against al-Shabaab in 2011, the country has experienced an unprecedented number of retaliatory attacks mounted by the jihadist-insurgent group. These attacks prompted a robust domestic counter-terrorism response that disproportionately targeted ethnic Somalis within Kenya. Using 2008 and 2014 data from the Afrobarometer and exploiting of the temporal variation in terrorist attacks, this study evaluates whether this period of terrorist attacks and intense counter-terrorism measures affected ethnic Somali minorities’ public perceptions towards the police and the government differently from other ethnic groups in Kenya. We find that the period following the 2011 intervention had significant varying impact on public perceptions between ethnic Somalis and other ethnic groups.

European Union and the fight against terrorism: a differentiated integration theory perspective

Although many EU member states experienced large scale terrorist attacks and both national and EU policymakers have repeatedly acknowledged the need to tackle the apparent contradiction between borderless terrorism and national counterterrorism measures, a genuine supranational EU counterterrorism response has not emerged thus far. In this article, we explore why this has been the case. Via a set of proxy indicators, we operationalize and test three key variables derived from differentiated integration theory, which suggests that the lack of horizontal and vertical integration in the EU’s counterterrorism policy ought to be the result of high and asymmetric politicization, asymmetrical interdependence, and little preference convergence across EU member states. Our findings indicate that although all of these variables did influence integration in the first fifteen years of EU counterterrorism policy (2001–2016), only one variable (interdependence) acted exactly as expected by differentiated integration theory.

‘Fake News’ and ‘Half-truths’ in the Framings of Boko Haram Narrative: Implications on International Counterterrorism Responses

ABSTRACT What concerns do official statements, especially government press releases on counterterrorism war against Boko Haram generate for countries outside Nigeria, and what are their counterterrorism responses to such sensitive military information? Nigeria’s official counterterrorism and military statements rarely met its intended objectives of improving military’s public image, applauding government’s counterterrorism efforts, and attracting international counterterrorism support. It, however, depicted government’s tendency in the use of ‘fake news’ and ‘half-truths’ in blanketing loopholes in its counterterrorism war against Boko Haram. This article argues that government’s adoption of ‘fake news’ and false statements, as ‘technology of security governance,’ in the framings of Boko Haram’s narrative and counterterrorism analysis is implicated in the shrinkage of international counterterrorism assistance (i.e. troop contribution, intelligence support, military financing, weapons supply, military trainings, cyber-security support, etc.), and consequently the intractability of Boko Haram insurgency. I elicit primary data from top military officers. I conclude by reflecting on a broad counterinsurgency information analysis model that will encompass new techniques for exclusive investigative inquiry in sorting out pieces of false information that are intricately mixed up in true statements.

The Application of the “Law of Crime Concentration” to Terrorism: The Jerusalem Case Study

One of the areas in terrorism that has not been adequately examined, is the geographic concentration of terror attacks in a city’s micro places. The literature related to the geographical distribution of terror generally focuses on macro places: continents, countries, and regions. In contrast, in the study of ordinary crime, significant studies have been conducted on the distribution of crime in micro-places “hot spots”. The findings of these studies have great significance when adopting models of law enforcement. This study examines whether there is a concentration of terror attacks in a limited number of hot spots that are stable over time. This study examines the entire population of terror attacks in the city of Jerusalem between 2000 and 2017 (249 attacks involving explosives, shootings, stabbings, attacks with a deadly weapon, and run over attacks) as a case study. We investigated and mapped each attack’s exact location (for the majority of attacks) and characterized the particular micro places of these terror attacks, as well as the attacks themselves. The research revealed that there is a higher frequency of terror attacks concentrated in specific hot spots and that they are stable over time. The concentration of terror attacks calls for a specialized counterterrorism response equivalent to “hot spots policing” based on the characteristics of the potential terrorist hot spots.

When to Take Credit for Terrorism? A Cross-National Examination of Claims and Attributions

ABSTRACT Rationalist research expects that groups claim credit for terrorism. Yet, the vast majority of attacks are not claimed. Of the unclaimed attacks, about half are attributed to a specific group. What factors impact claiming decisions? While extant literature largely treats claiming as binary—either claimed or not—the present study disaggregates claiming decisions further to also consider attacks with attributions of credit but no claim, using data from 160 countries between 1998 and 2016. Both attack-level and situational factors impact claiming decisions. Disaggregating claiming behavior shows meaningful differences. Specifically, competitive environments and suicide attacks increase claims but not attributions. Higher fatalities in general increase both claims and attributions, but when the target is civilian attributions decrease with a high body count whereas claims increase. Further, while the directional impact of other variables is the same, the magnitude of their effects vary between claims and attributions. Results are robust across modeling specifications. Findings demonstrate that our understanding of claiming behaviors is limited when claiming is treated as dichotomous. This study provides further insight into factors that impact claiming decisions for terrorism. Results can address data issues in academic research and inform counterterrorism responses.

Closing the ‘Intangible Technology Transfer’ Gap within the Existing Legal Frameworks: Time for an Additional Protocol(s)?

The current terrorism landscape poses increasing, diverse levels of threat, with accompanying complex and challenging counter-terrorism responses, as terrorist groups (TGs) become more global in their reach, creative in their methods, as well as more connected to organized criminal groups (OCGs). One concerning trend, in at least some geographical regions, is increased cooperation between OCGs and TGs or even convergence whereby the level of integration between the two groups is such that it is difficult to discern the parameters between them. Such cooperation or convergence can put existing applicable legal frameworks under strain, highlighting or even creating normative gaps in the process. In turn, these may hinder effective international cooperation, including in the domains of legal terrorism prevention and criminal justice responses to organized criminal and terrorist activities, thereby posing significant threats to international peace and security. The related risks, together with the accompanying challenges and complexities for the international community to effectively counter such threats, are increasing exponentially via rapid technological advances, notably “emerging technologies”. These are aggravated by the fact that applicable legal instruments (international, regional and national) have generally not managed to keep pace with such technological advances and associated risks. One such area relates to intangible technology transfer (ITT) by OCGs and TGs, which incorporates manufacturing techniques, technical know-how and intellectual property, and can take a number of forms such as the electronic transfer of weapons blueprints. A particular issue, considered in this article, relates to the potential for OCGs/TGs to acquire “dual use” technology (i.e., technology with the potential to be used for both legitimate civil/military as well as illicit criminal purposes), for instance 3D printers, together with the software and/or blueprints necessary (e.g., obtained through cybercrime) to print weapons. In terms of the risks posed by ITT, though it is not possible to 3D print fissile, chemical, explosive etc materials, nonetheless the defence and security sector is reporting the rapid development of technology towards the 3D printing of the component parts of missiles, for instance, by military troops who are operationally deployed. Clearly, if such technology were to fall into the hands of OCGs/TGs, catastrophic consequences could ensue. Somewhat surprisingly, despite the associated, foreseeable peace and security risks, such issues have attracted only modest research or even political attention to date from a legal perspective, resulting in significant knowledge gaps in relation to the development of policy, law and practice governing emerging technologies related challenges. More worrying are the gaps which appear to be present within existing criminal justice and anti-terrorism instruments governing OCG and TG activities. As this article reveals, minimal, if any, criminalization of ITT related activities exist. Instead, two primary gaps appear to exist: first, existing treaties do not generally criminalize the transfer of intangible technology as an asset for criminal purposes, whether for financial gain or to perpetrate terrorist acts; second, the existing frameworks do not criminalize the utilization of technology for the transfer of intangible technology assets by OCGs or TGs. The article concludes with a number of recommendations as to how some of the identified weaknesses might be addressed.

The Making of Islamist-inspired Terrorism and It’s Counter-terrorism in Indonesia

The study attempts to uncover the making of Islamist-inspired terrorism and its state-led counter-terrorism responses in the modern history of Indonesia. It argues that Islamist-inspired terrorism and its counter-terrorism have been inextricably linked in complex ways within political and historical contexts. Instead of regarding Islamist-inspired terrorism and counter-terrorism as separated and unrelated entities, or perceiving the latter as just response to the former, it suggests that they have been intertwined and shaped each other throughout Indonesia’s modern history. By discussing Islamist-inspired terrorism in the three Indonesian historical periods, namely the resurgence of Darul Islam during 1940-60s, the re-emergence of Darul Islam networks and its series of terrorist attacks in 1980s, and the Jemaah Islamiyah-related terrorist activities in the 2000s as illustrative cases, the study has delineated the ways in which Islamist-inspired terrorism and its state-led counter-terrorism have been bound up within particular political, historical, and sociological context. In addition to that, the study also reveals that both Islamist-inspired terrorism and its state-led counter-terrorism have been shaped by the dynamic interplay of local, national, and global contexts.

Oversight of Kenya’s Counterterrorism Measures on Al-Shabaab

Abstract Citing comparative US, UK and European jurisprudence, this article proposes a pre-inchoate offence to punish terror suspects at the African Court of Justice and Human Rights. It traces the Kenya government’s twenty-first-century responses to distorted jihad fundamentalism culminating in the current escalating pogroms. Coercive executive counterterrorism responses make exceptions to universal human rights enshrined under liberal democratic constitutions and international instruments. Yet the legality principle constrains the use of pre-inchoate offences. Hence civil society’s resistance delayed the enactment of Kenya’s Prevention of Terrorism Act. Moreover, the Constitutional Court subsequently struck out as ‘vague and ambiguous’ the Security Law (Amendment) Act’s substantive provision which ‘presumed criminal intent for encouraging terror’. Procedurally, another dilemma arises. This concerns whether it is possible for an international terror suspect to have a fair domestic trial. Although ‘limited executive measures’ require some individuals to trade off their own liberties to safeguard the security of others, due diligence can prevent torture or targeted killings. Instead, following Kenyan ‘Operation Linda Nchi’s’ pre-emptive strikes since 2011, Al-Shabaab’s retaliation arguably spiralled into increased violations of the core human right to life. Enacting pre-inchoate offences instead deems Islamist terrorists, particularly secondary offenders, as rational actors. Using a ‘reverse harm thesis’ to justify the education of pre-inchoate offenders, I argue that regional criminal trials of terror suspects constitute better ‘effective oversight’ on human rights violations than executive, legislative or domestic judicial responses. Invoking ‘concurrent responsibility’ to prosecute Al-Shabaab suspects before the ACJHR can therefore facilitate AMISOM’s dignified ‘exit’ strategy from Somalia.

TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY BANISHMENT: CITIZENSHIP STRIPPING IN COMMON LAW NATIONS

AbstractThree common law countries—the UK, Canada and Australia—have significantly expanded citizenship revocation laws as a counterterrorism response. This article provides a detailed examination of these laws, their development and their use. It also explores and critiques the extent to which the laws shift citizenship away from fundamental common law principles, and the means by which such a shift has been justified.

Parallels in propaganda? A comparative historical analysis of Islamic State and the Nazi Party

ABSTRACTThis article responds to calls for more comparative historical studies in public relations history across nations and cultures with a comparative analysis of the propaganda operations of Islamic State with the Nazi Party. This comparative historical approach aims to reduce the uncertainty associated with extremist terrorism and bring a historic-communicative perspective to an organization that politicians and commentators arguably overestimate in what has been described as the “epistemological crisis” of Western counterterrorism. This investigation attempts a methodological expansion of public relations historiography by applying the theoretical approach of historical institutionalism as basis for comparison between the two institutions alongside conventional content and artefact analysis. The project identifies ten parallels in propaganda and concludes that some of these commonalities – including a focus on engaging and recruiting young people, for example – can provide historically-derived guidance on counter terrorism responses in the communicative sphere.

Criminal Justice in Transition: The Northern Ireland ContextA.‐M. McAlinden and C. Dwyer (Eds.). Oxford: Hart (2015) 386pp. £49.50hb ISBN 978–1849465779

Criminal Justice in Transition: The Northern Ireland ContextA.‐M. McAlinden and C. Dwyer (Eds.). Oxford: Hart (2015) 386pp. £49.50hb ISBN 978–1849465779

Jihad and Counter-Jihad in Europe: Islamic Radicals, Right-Wing Extremists, and Counter-Terrorism Responses

Aage Borchgrevink. A Norwegian Tragedy: Anders Behring Breivik and the Massacre on Utoya. Trans. Guy Puzey. Malden, MA: Polity, 2013. 300 pp., $25.00 hardcover. ISBN: 0745672205.Raffaello Pantucci....

Legislating against humanitarian principles: A case study on the humanitarian implications of Australian counterterrorism legislation

AbstractThe humanitarian principles – humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence – have come to characterize effective humanitarian action, particularly in situations of armed conflict, and have provided a framework for the broader humanitarian system. Modern counterterrorism responses are posing significant challenges to these principles and the feasibility of conducting principled humanitarian assistance and protection activities. This article explores the origins of the principles, the history behind their development, and their contemporary contribution to humanitarian action. The article then discusses some of the ways in which the principles are threatened, both by practice and by law, in the Australian context, and finally makes suggestions as to how the principles can be reclaimed and protected for the future of effective, impartial humanitarian action.

The Terrorist Threats Against Russia and its Counterterrorism Response Measures

Joshua Sinai *As of mid-2015, the primarily Islamist-based terrorist threats against Russia and its counterterrorism response measures continued to be in the spotlight. These Islamist terrorist threats, it must be pointed out, were unrelated to Russia’s