Reforestation Costs Research Articles

Irreversibility and the economics of forest conservation

Regenerating forest on land used for non-forest economic activities can be difficult; this introduces some irreversibility in the process of deforestation. We analyze the effect of such irreversibility (reforestation cost) on the efficiency of forest conservation in a general model of optimal forest management where trees are classified in age classes and land has alternative economic use. Irreversibility may lead to a continuum of optimal steady states that differ in the area under forest cover; increase in irreversibility can only add steady states with smaller forest cover. High irreversibility discourages expansion of forests but at the same time, makes it optimal to conserve a minimal forested area in the long run; in particular, it is optimal to maintain a forested area above a critical size if the initial forest cover lies above it, while forests that are initially smaller than the critical level are optimally managed at constant size. We characterize the exact condition under which it is optimal to avoid total deforestation; the extent of irreversibility does not matter for this. Weak irreversibility may be associated with cyclical fluctuations in optimal forest cover; we characterize upper and lower bounds on the forest cover along an optimal path.

Approach to reduction of reforestation cost

Approach to reduction of reforestation cost

Native vegetation in reclamation: Improving habitat and ecosystem function through using prairie species in mine land reclamation

In the Appalachian region, coal mining has impacted 600,000ha historically. While a return to forest would be a preferable postmining land use, due to the difficulty and higher costs of reforestation, many sites are reclaimed into non-native grasslands. The typical seed mix for these grasslands is low diversity and consists of exotic, cool season grasses and forbs. For this study, we combined several species in standard reclamation mixes with prairie species native to North America to create a higher diversity planting on three mine sites in southeastern Ohio. Vegetation and soil microbial properties were assessed within two years after site establishment. Results were encouraging. The mix that included native plants met reclamation standards of ground cover two years after planting, indicating these alternative mixes can be successful. The first year species richness and diversity were higher in native planted areas when compared with traditional, the second year they were equal between treatments. Soil beta-glucosidase activities tended to be lower or higher in the native planted areas, in contrast to soil organic matter, which was generally higher under native prairie mix. Microbial biomass, Actinobacteria, and gram negative bacteria estimated by ester-linked Fatty acid methyl esters occasionally appeared to be higher under native prairie mix indicating that the experimental mix may have a positive effect on soil microbial biomass after almost two years of establishment. Incorporating hardy native prairie plants into reclamation seed mixes can increase the value of the ecosystem for pollinators and wildlife, and potentially improve soil conditions more quickly than non-native plantings alone.

Reducing Reforestation Costs in Lebanon: Adaptive Field Trials

Lebanon’s Ministry of Environment initiated a project in 2009 to determine low-cost reforestation techniques for stone pine (Pinus pinea) and Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani) for large-scale land rehabilitation activities in the arid Middle East. Irrigation (several techniques vs. no water), planting (8- to 18-month-old seedlings), seeding, and soil preparation methods were evaluated in three sets of adaptive management field trials. The aim was to reduce reforestation costs while still achieving sufficient regeneration. A key result for management was that non-irrigated seed planting of stone pine and possibly of Lebanon cedar showed promise for cost-effective reforestation and could be competitive with seedlings, given correct seed source and planting conditions. Stone pine seeds collected from nearby mother trees and planted without irrigation on sandy soil showed 35% survival for <600 USD/ha; seedlings planted without irrigation cost about 2500 USD/ha and achieved 50–70% survival (costs based on 800 seedlings/ha). Water supplements increased establishment costs over 2 years without concomitant improvements to survival. Future studies should evaluate how soil texture and soil preparation interact with other factors to affect seed germination and survival for each species.

スギ,ヒノキの育林所要人工数,育林費の算定例

スギ,ヒノキの育林所要人工数,育林費の算定例

Optimal Forest Stock Determination in Côte d’Ivoire, in a Sustainable Development Perspective

For several decades, the forest sector in Cote d’Ivoire has undergone a drastic decrease of its forest coverage from 10,860,000 ha in 1960 to 1,500,000 ha in 2016. This situation brought about some climatic changes that affect farmers’ traditional mode of production. The situation also has affected the wood industry through the lack of raw material (timber), forcing them fire workers. The objective of this study was, to determine the necessary size of the forest stock to preserve in order to maintain the ecological balance of the country. This equilibrium will allow the improvement of farming conditions (increased rainfall and climatic stability), revenue from farmers, the wood industry, and in return, the economy of the country. The results of this study indicate that, the forest stock for an ecological equilibrium in Cote d’Ivoire was estimated, at 8,343,000 ha but that equilibrium was disrupted since 1978. To rebuild the forest coverage capital, the size of the reforestation should be between 99,000 and 500,000 ha of forest per year compared with, the real reforestation by the government from 2,000 to 7,000 ha per year. Given the high cost of reforestation, our study suggested a paid community reforestation that is more efficient and less expensive. The determination of these references (optimum forest stock for an ecological equilibrium and optimum reforestation) would help the government adjust its resources for future forest recovery projects in order to significantly revitalize the agriculture and forest sector, which is the main pillar of the country’s economy and the principal jobs provider. One advantage of this strategy will be to considerably reduce the rural exodus.

Reforestation with four native tree species after abandoned gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon

Global demand for gold has led to a massive increase in mining activity around the world. During the last decade, gold mining grew significantly in the Amazon becoming a major driver for land degradation and heavy metal contamination. However, few studies have explored soil degradation, reforestation, and plant mercury accumulation after mining operations. In this study, we established a reforestation field experiment in a gold mined area. We tested the outcome of planting seedlings of four native tree species previously grown in nursery polyethylene bags versus planting bare root seedlings, as well as the effect of three levels of biofertilization on seedling survival and growth. Previous to the experiment, we evaluated the level of soil degradation by comparing physical and chemical soil properties between the mined area and the nearest undisturbed reference forest. One year after planting, we also sampled roots, stems, and leaves of the planted species in order to detect possible mercury (Hg) accumulation in plant tissues. Our results revealed that soil texture becomes disproportionately sandy, while organic matter content and cation exchange capacity were seven- and three-fold lower in the mined area than in the reference forest, respectively. Seedling survivorship and growth varied across planting methods, biofertilization intensity, and species. Even in the bare root planting technique seedling survivorship was highly acceptable (75%) and increased with transplanting (83%) and the addition of biofertilizer (92%). Although seedling growth was improved significantly by the addition of diluted and pure biofertilizer, overall growth was found to be poor. Two individuals – distant from each other – out of a total of 60 sampled, showed traces of total Hg. A stem from Ceiba registered 8.52mg Hg/kg and the roots of an Erythrina presented 0.60mg Hg/kg. Total estimates of reforestation costs ranged between $1662 and $3464 per hectare in year 1. Poor soil fertility, slow species growth rates, and traces of Hg in plant tissues indicate that remediation and restoration in areas degraded by gold mining can be very challenging.

The Effects of a Federal Tax Reform on the US Timber Sector

Under discussion in the US Congress is the desirability of reforming much of the US federal tax code. Recent proposals include lowering rates and broadening the tax base by, among other things, eliminating tax expenditure write-offs, preferences, and incentives. This study focuses on tax changes that might apply to the timber sector. The study looks at the effects of ending the capital gains treatment of timber, eliminating the timberland ownership form known as a real estate investment trust (REIT), restricting the deductibility of current management costs, and repealing the deductability of reforestation costs. Additionally, because our study focuses exclusively on the timber sector, it treats the rest of the federal tax system as unchanged except in one scenario, where we introduce lower corporate and individual income tax rates. We examine these changes using the Timber Supply Model, which projects their effects on timber sector investment, growing stock, harvests, prices, and international trade (net imports).

A stand-level tool for predicting the natural regeneration density of black spruce and jack pine following fire and salvage

A tool was developed to allow managers and foresters to quickly assess reforestation needs following forest fire and salvage logging at the stand level in both pure and mixed black spruce and jack pine stands. This on-site operational assessment tool was created using a forest regeneration model that simulates the natural regeneration densities of black spruce and jack pine following fire and salvage. Tree species basal areas used for simulations represent the natural range expected in the field. Additional parameters include the abscission schedule of the species, the percentage of optimal (exposed mineral soil or humus) post-fire seedbeds, and the timing of the salvage operation. The tool also allows for rapid planning of both salvage operations and planting. It has important advantages over conventional seedling surveys in that it can be employed immediately following fire, can guide management decisions about the planning of road construction and the harvest sequence, and takes into account the entire establishment phase. Using the tool to adjust the harvesting schedule to minimize replanting, the likely final cost of reforestation can be estimated for an entire burn. The tool shows that a higher percentage of optimal seedbeds are necessary following salvage: (1) for black spruce to regenerate adequately compared to jack pine (i.e., planting of black spruce will almost always be necessary); (2) as basal area of the species of interest decreases; and, (3) to adequately regenerate burned intact and salvaged stands in late-season fires compared with those from early-season fires.

The costs of reforestation: A spatial model of the costs of establishing environmental and carbon plantings

Reforestation presents a potentially important tool for carbon abatement and reducing the impact of climate change and may also provide valuable biodiversity benefits. However, the economic returns are critical in determining whether it will be a viable land use and this is highly sensitive to assumptions around upfront establishment cost. Few studies have examined the spatial variability in establishment costs or developed spatially explicit layers that estimate these costs. Here we developed a model to predict the spatially explicit costs of establishment of monoculture tree plantations for carbon sequestration (or carbon plantings) and mixed species plantations for carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits (or environmental plantings). Within this model we parameterised three separate methods of establishing revegetation; manual planting of tubestock, mechanical planting of tubestock and direct seeding. A decision tree was used to select between the different establishment methods based on soil and terrain parameters. We applied this model to a case study across the intensive agricultural districts of Australia. We populated the model with spatially explicit cost elements from literature and interviews with industry practitioners across Australia. For the case study, 3206km2 of carbon plantings were allocated to manual tubestock establishment and 903,127km2 were allocated to mechanical tubestock establishment with cost estimates ranging from $1763ha−1 to $6396ha−1. For environmental plantings, 326,512km2 were allocated to direct seeding, 3206km2 were allocated to manual tubestock and 576,615km2 were allocated to mechanical tubestock establishment with costs ranging from $1703ha−1 to $9097ha−1. These layers present an increasingly important tool for planning and policy development particularly for decision making around complex issues of land use and climate change.

Reforestation as a novel abatement and compliance measure for ground-level ozone.

High ambient ozone (O3) concentrations are a widespread and persistent problem globally. Although studies have documented the role of forests in removing O3 and one of its precursors, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), the cost effectiveness of using peri-urban reforestation for O3 abatement purposes has not been examined. We develop a methodology that uses available air quality and meteorological data and simplified forest structure growth-mortality and dry deposition models to assess the performance of reforestation for O3 precursor abatement. We apply this methodology to identify the cost-effective design for a hypothetical 405-ha, peri-urban reforestation project in the Houston-Galveston-Brazoria O3 nonattainment area in Texas. The project would remove an estimated 310 tons of (t) O3 and 58 t NO2 total over 30 y. Given its location in a nitrogen oxide (NOx)-limited area, and using the range of Houston area O3 production efficiencies to convert forest O3 removal to its NOx equivalent, this is equivalent to 127-209 t of the regulated NOx. The cost of reforestation per ton of NOx abated compares favorably to that of additional conventional controls if no land costs are incurred, especially if carbon offsets are generated. Purchasing agricultural lands for reforestation removes this cost advantage, but this problem could be overcome through cost-share opportunities that exist due to the public and conservation benefits of reforestation. Our findings suggest that peri-urban reforestation should be considered in O3 control efforts in Houston, other US nonattainment areas, and areas with O3 pollution problems in other countries, wherever O3 formation is predominantly NOx limited.

The main costs of natural disasters in the Forest District of Węgierska Górka

Abstract The aim of the study was to determine the impact of increased forest management due to natural disasters on particular core unit costs. We analysed the direct costs for the Forest District of Węgierska Górka in the years 2004-2010 based on information from the State Forests lnformation System (SFIS) database compared with selected forest districts within the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Cracow (RDSF). The forest districts were divided into two groups with two and six forest districts and confidence intervals around the mean were determined and the significance of linear regressions of the considered characteristics was tested. Additionally, the growth rate (decrease) of the unit cost was calculated. Our studies showed that natural disasters affect only certain unit costs regardless of the intensity of the forest management. The increase in unit costs resulted in economic losses in forest management. A full long-term analysis of the economic impact of natural disasters should be done, taking into account the cost of reforestation of destroyed areas which may become apparent only some years later.

Growing the new forest – The evolution of applied silviculture in Alberta

Hinton, Alberta, was the birthplace of the province’s modern forest industry, and it became the proving ground for sustainable forest management in Alberta. The lease agreement establishing the province’s first pulp mill there in 1954 granted long-term tenure on a forestland in return for the company accepting all the costs of inventory, planning, harvest, and reforestation. Des Crossley, a former CFS research scientist, was the company’s first Chief Forester. He and his team pioneered many new approaches to sustained yield forest management. These included silvicultural techniques to encourage natural regeneration and, when these were inappropriate, the development of Alberta’s first containerized seedling system. Silviculture systems continued to evolve and improve through a combination of research, data collection, analysis, innovation, and adaptation in each aspect of silviculture at Hinton.

Growth response of Pinus densiflora seedlings to different fertilizer compound ratios in a recently burned area in the eastern coast of Korea

This study was conducted to determine fertilizer compound ratios suitable for soil conditions and tree seedling growth in recently burned areas in Korean forests. Currently, the conventional fertilizer ratio applied to undisturbed forests in Korea is N:P:K 3:4:1. In this study, Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora S. et Z.) seedlings planted in the burned area were fertilized over four growing seasons with the following NPK compound ratios: unfertilized (CON), 3:4:1, 6:4:1, 3:8:1, and 3:4:2. Fertilization generally increased current-year needle nutrient concentrations of the seedlings, and the chlorophyll a:b ratio in CON was significantly lower than in all fertilized plots. Fertilization significantly affected the growth of the pine seedlings, which had 71–87 % more height growth and 29–67 % increased root collar diameter (RCD) compared to CON. The increases in height and RCD were significantly higher with the 6:4:1 and 3:8:1 ratios than with the 3:4:1 ratio. The 3:4:2 and 3:4:1 fertilizer ratios had no effect on the RCD growth of seedlings. This suggests that the early growth of pine seedlings could be improved by providing high N and P supplies to areas affected by forest fires rather than the conventional fertilizer ratio of 3:4:1 in Korean forest soils. Therefore, application of the suitable fertilization ratio may be a very effective way to reduce reforestation cost as well as to shorten restoration period.

Optimal hardwood tree planting and forest reclamation policy on reclaimed surface mine lands in the Appalachian coal region

We study the optimal hardwood tree planting decision on reclaimed surface coal mines in the Appalachian region using a mine operator-focused, expected cost model that recognizes costs of preparing the site for tree planting, unit costs of planting seedlings, and opportunity costs of reforestation treatments and the performance bond. We also consider the possibility of failed initial attempts by incorporating the probability of reforestation success, based on empirical seedling ,survival rates and regulated tree survival standards, as well as fixed and unit costs of returning for additional planting. Optimal planting levels from 319 to 780 trees per acre and expected costs from $1049 to $2338 were found using simulations over a range of unit planting costs, fixed costs of replanting, tree survival standards, and interest rates. Further simulations compared optimal planting across un-weathered gray sandstone and weathered brown sandstone substrate materials, finding gray sandstone to be associated with lower expected costs. We conclude that optimal planting density and expected reforestation cost are sensitive to economic parameters, regulations, and planting substrate materials; and those policies influencing these factors may have substantial impact on reforestation outcomes and the choice of post-mining land use by mine operators. Our study provides a framework for understanding forest reclamation decisions that incorporates incentives faced by the mine operators who develop and implement the plans for mine reclamation, including forestry.

Post-fire salvage logging increases restoration costs in a Mediterranean mountain ecosystem

Post-fire salvage logging (i.e. felling and removing burnt trees, often eliminating the remaining woody debris) is a practice routinely performed by forest managers worldwide. In Mediterranean-type ecosystems, salvage logging is considered a measure to reduce future reforestation costs, but this assumption remains largely untested. We made a cost analysis of different management schemes, addressing the immediate post-fire burnt-wood management as well as the costs and success of subsequent reforestation efforts. Two experimental 25-ha plots were established in a burnt pine reforestation of SE Spain, in which three replicates of three post-fire treatments were applied: non-intervention (NI), partial cut plus lopping (PCL; felling and lopping off the branches from most of the trees, leaving all biomass in situ), and salvage logging (SL). After 4 years, a mechanised reforestation was undertaken, and seedling mortality was monitored for 2 years. The cost of all management operations was recorded in situ, and the cost of re-planting the dead seedlings was estimated according to the expenses of previous reforestation. Initial cost of wood management was greatest in SL and zero in NI. Reforestation cost was highest in NI and lowest in SL, and seedling-mortality rates proved lowest in PCL (43 % vs. 51 % and 52 % in SL and NI, respectively). Considering all the post-fire management operations, salvage logging did not provide particular economic advantages for forest restoration, and had an overall cost of 3,436 ± 340 €/ha. By contrast, NI and PCL reduced total restoration costs by 50 and 35 %, respectively, and PCL indeed promoted restoration success. We suggest that the full cost of management operations needs to be considered when evaluating the economic implications of post-fire salvage logging.

Valuation of shrimp ecosystem services – a case study in Leizhou City, China

The economic valuation of ecosystem services is an effective way to understand the multiple benefits provided. Effluent and other environmental problems must be properly managed if shrimp aquaculture is to achieve sustainability. Evaluation of shrimp ecosystems can facilitate voluntary improvements in the environmental performance of shrimp farms. This study evaluated shrimp ecosystem services in Leizhou City, Guangdong Province, using the market method (MM), carbon tax rate method (CRM), reforestation cost method (RCM) and contingent valuation method (CVM), based on results of input–output analysis and water quality of shrimp ponds. We examined both direct and indirect value of shrimp ecosystem services at large and small spatial scales. This study has quantified the multiple benefits and costs of shrimp ecosystems, suggests a more feasible basis for coastal environmental management and sustainability of shrimp aquaculture.

Seasonal dynamics of gas regulation service in forest ecosystem

Using the 3-year observational data from ChinaFlux (Chinese Terrestrial Ecosystem Flux Research Network), we studied the gas regulation flux dynamics and cumulative process of gas regulation value in Qianyanzhou middle subtropical plantation (QYF) and Changbai Mountain temperate mixed forest (CBF). The gas regulation service was differentiated into vegetation gas regulation service and net ecosystem gas regulation service. Carbon tax approach, reforestation cost approach and industrial oxygen approach were employed to calculate gas regulation value. Results show that there was significant seasonal variation in vegetation gas regulation flux. Daily CO2 uptake fluxes averaged 82.00 kg·ha−1·d−1 and 59.37 kg·ha−1·d−1 and the corresponding O2 emission fluxes were 59.65 kg·ha−1·d−1 and 43.19 kg·ha−1·d−1 for QYF and CBF, respectively. The cumulative curves of vegetation gas regulation value always followed a sigmoid shape, and the annual gas regulation value produced by vegetation was RMB 14 342.69 yuan·ha−1 and RMB 10 384.18 yuan·ha−1 for both QYF and CBF, respectively. In terms of monthly net ecosystem gas regulation service, QYF appeared as a CO2 sink and O2 source for the whole year, while CBF appeared to be a CO2 sink and O2 source mainly in the period between May and September. The cumulative curves of net ecosystem gas regulation value presented a sigmoid (“S”) shape for QYF, while a unimodal type curve for CBF. The annual net ecosystem gas regulation value was 8470.52 yuan·ha−1 and 5091.98 yuan·ha−1 for QYF and CBF, respectively. The economic value of both the vegetation gas regulation service and net ecosystem gas regulation service were mainly produced between May and October.

Effects of Timber Prices, Ownership Objectives, and Owner Characteristics on Timber Supply

Abstract In this article, we examine factors affecting nonindustrial private timber supply using a consistent estimation method for a limited dependent variable model. The survey data, collected in 1999 from 3,051 Finnish forest owners, includes information on objectives for ownership as well as annual harvest volumes between 1994 and 1998. Ownership objectives are identified using principal component analysis, and five forest ownership objective groups are generated using K-means clustering: multiobjective owners, investors, self-employed owners, recreationists, and indifferent owners. Along with stumpage price, reforestation costs and forest and owner characteristics, including the above objective groups, are used as explanatory variables in estimating the supply equation. A consistent estimation method allowing for heteroscedasticity and non-normality is used. Statistically significant elasticity of the unconditional mean harvest with respect to timber price is 1.3. Recreationists and indifferent forest owners, ceteris paribus, harvest about 2 m3/ha/year less than multiobjective owners and self-employed owners, whereas investors and indifferent owners are more price-responsive than the other groups.

Direct seeding of Quercus robur L. for reforestation: The influence of mechanical site preparation and sowing date on early growth of seedlings

Compared with conventional planting, direct seeding of Quercus spp. is a method that can reduce the costs of reforestation considerably. However, interference from natural vegetation and predation on acorns contribute to regeneration failures. Mechanical site preparation has the potential to reduce both these problems. To study the influence of sowing date and of different mechanical site preparation treatments on early seedling growth, an experiment was carried out in storm-felled areas, formerly Norway spruce forests, in southern Sweden from May 2006 to September 2008. Five treatments were applied and acorns were planted in May and July 2006. The treatments were: disc trenching, patch scarification, topsoil removal, mounding and an undisturbed control. A delay of less than two months in seeding resulted in the equivalent of one year's growth reduction with respect to oak seedling's height and biomass. This could be explained by delayed emergence of seedlings, and by the dry conditions during summer seeding. The seedlings only exhibited a weak positive biomass growth response following disc trenching, patch scarification and top soil removal. In the latter case this might be explained by increased soil compaction and extensive removal of the humus layer. Site preparation by mounding resulted in good vegetation control, an increased biomass growth response and deeper seedling roots. In this treatment, we found high relative light levels near seedlings, reduced soil moisture and dry bulk density of the soil and higher soil temperatures. One or more of these environmental factors could have influenced the growth response. Whether this increased early growth rate persists throughout young stand development is, however, uncertain.