Reclamation Costs Research Articles

Reuse and recycling of secondary effluents in refineries employing advanced multi-barrier systems

In this paper the reclamation and reuse of municipal secondary effluents, as well as the reclamation and recycling of refinery secondary effluents, are technically and economically evaluated. It is shown that both practices are feasible and sustainable, and that the reclamation costs depend largely on specific circumstances such as legal requirements, price policy, reuse application, raw water composition, etc. The reclaimed water is reused, or respectively recycled, as boiler make-up. Therefore both reclamation plants employ advanced multi-barrier systems including ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis. The employed processes have shown excellent performance with regard to the removal of critical parameters such as silica. For example, this parameter was reduced from 13 mg/l in the raw water to 7 μg/l in the boiler make-up.

English

Proponents of geomorphic mine land reclamation have criticized current reclamation practices in the coal fields of steep-sloped Central Appalachia as too narrowly focused on civil engineering principles and neglectful of the functional and aesthetic benefits of reclaiming mine sites in ways that mimic landforms and drainage patterns. They observe that current mining and reclamation practices are radically transforming the mountain-and-valley terrain into gigantic flat plateaus and, in doing so, disrupting the beauty and ecology of the landscape. Instead of designing and constructing linear or planar surfaces and unvarying slope gradients during the reclamation process, they recommend landforming, i.e. the adoption of curvilinear, compound slope forms that blend well with the surrounding physiography and represent the result of naturally stabilizing geomomorphic processes. The authors feel that the concept of geomorphic mine land reclamation is sound, however, its application to the Central Appalachian coal fields faces significant--albeit not insurmountable--challenges. They include: (1) existing reclamation-enforcement regulations that are focused on civil engineering principles and not explicitly supportive of geomorphic methodologies; (2) regulatory agencies' current intent to limit the down-gradient reach of excess spoil fills in order to allay disruption or burial of streams; (3) actual or perceived increases in reclamation costs; and (4) the challenge of designing and constructing natural landforms that are mature and stable in an otherwise youthful, erosional landscape.

When the Gold is Gone: Reporting of Asset Retirement Obligations for the Ultimate Cleanup of Closed Mining Operations

ABSTRACT: Hardrock mining companies contribute positively to the U.S. economy. However, they also cause serious degradation to the surrounding environment. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, hardrock mining companies are among the greatest polluters in the United States. Mining companies are responsible for satisfying legal obligations arising under environmental laws that include cleanup and exit costs for all mines shut down. These environmental liabilities are called asset retirement obligations and under FAS No. 143, U.S. mining operators are required to recognize their asset retirement obligations upon acquisition or construction of their mines. In this paper, we examine the financial reporting for asset retirement obligations for gold mining companies. Based on a simple ratio analysis, it appears that top U.S. gold mining operators have sufficient financial resources to meet their future asset retirement obligations. However, when we conducted sensitivity analysis to exclude intangible assets and to adjust the value of the asset retirement obligations, we found that firms are not likely to have sufficient financial resources to meet their obligations. Current financial assurance mechanisms do not consistently and effectively result in firms meeting their asset retirement obligations. As a result, U.S. taxpayers can be left with the costs of cleanup and reclamation.

Economic-theory-based analysis of the collection standard of mine land reclamation bond and its calculation approach

The collection standard of mine land reclamation bond based on the 'rational economic man' theory is analyzed. There are three relations between the collection standard of the bond and the expected reclamation cost. Under each of the three relations, the choices and welfare levels of the regulatory authorities and the mining enterprises are analyzed respectively. It is indicated that the proper amount of the bond should equal to the reclamation cost. There are two approaches to calculate reclamation cost. One is based on ecosystem service value. The other is based on reclamation fee. The former is difficult to operate in practice for the result derived by this method has much difference from the payment ability of the mining enterprises. By comparison, it is easy to operate in practice to calculate reclamation cost through the calculation of the total sum of engineering reclamation fee, biological reclamation fee and other reclamation fee. Therefore, the approach of calculating reclamation cost based on reclamation fee should be adopted to calculate the amount of the bond the mine enterprises should submit.

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Current North Dakota soil respread regulations are based on research conducted in the mid 1980’s. Regulations include a buffer that was added to the respread depths suggested by research to account for the unknown behavior of reclaimed sites over time as spoil weathers and plant communities mature. These unknowns have since been largely addressed by long-term studies of reclaimed sites. Studies have also shown that season of growth (C3 vs. C4) and origin (native vs. introduced) do not change the response of perennial grasses to soil respread depth. Therefore, respread recommendations may now be based on the results of research that include introduced species, and possibly without the addition of a buffer. After a review of literature it appears that respread depths may be reduced. A reduction in soil respread depths would result in less soil salvaged, stockpiled and respread, thus reducing reclamation costs for the mine without negatively effecting reclamation success. However, before changes to respread requirements are made, we must be confident this will not have a negative impact on the revegetation success of a site or of its capability to support other land uses in the future. Therefore, before ND mines can put into practice the recommendations of past research, issues regarding the effects on annual cropland, woody species and the behavior of sodium in the reclaimed soil profile must be resolved. _______________________________ 1 Paper was presented at the 2009 National Meeting of the American Society of Mining and Reclamation, Billings, MT, Revitalizing the Environment: Proven Solutions and Innovative Approaches May 30 – June 5, 2009. R.I. Barnhisel (Ed.) Published by ASMR, 3134 Montavesta Rd., Lexington, KY 40502. 2 Sarah J. Flath is the Operations Planner for North American Coal, Freedom Mine, Beulah, ND 58523 Proceedings America Society of Mining and Reclamation, 2009 pp 451-473 DOI: 10.21000/JASMR09010451

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Traditional drill pad construction techniques for natural gas production involve a cut-and-fill procedure that displaces existing plant communities and results in costly soil remediation and revegetation procedures. At the Jonah natural gas field, Sublette County, Wyoming, EnCana Oil and Gas (USA), Inc. is evaluating use of oak mats during drilling and completion activities to minimize disturbances to soil and plant resources. In this study, changes in vegetation and soil attributes were evaluated as a result of oak mat use. Overall, oak mats tended to protect plant resources, minimize weedy forb establishment and maintain the plant community in a condition similar to adjacent rangeland. On average when compared to native range, grass growth improved, forbs remained similar, and shrubs were negatively impacted in oak matted areas. Vegetative results suggest that the success and timeliness of reclamation following the use of oak mat drill pads is superior to that obtained at reclaimed cut and fill locations. Following mat removal, mean soil bulk density values changed -2.9, 2.2 and 3.7 percent for the 0 to 5.1, 0 to 15.3, and 0 to 30.5 cm depth increments. All soil bulk density values remained below recommended thresholds for rangeland environments. A cost- benefit discussion indicates that in this setting, construction costs associated with oak mats are similar to those incurred by traditional cut-and-fill techniques. Drilling procedures using oak mats are more costly due to the need for a closed system for treatment of drill cuttings. However, this expense may be offset by lower reclamation costs associated with oak mat use.

English

This study examines economic issues that affect the decision to reclaim land disturbed by oil and gas development. We start with a discussion of the current reclamation bonding requirements in Wyoming, which are intended to insure the proper reclamation of disturbed land. Next, a simple economic framework is proposed for modeling reclamation decision making by oil and gas producers. The most important issue affecting the decision to reclaim is the cost of reclaiming the disturbed land; therefore, we use a dataset provided by the Wyoming Oil and Gas Conservation Commission to conduct a detailed analysis of reclamation costs for orphaned oil and gas wells. We also consider issues concerning the timing of reclamation costs and some environmental considerations. Finally, we discuss some deficiencies in the current bonding system, and offer some suggestions on how the current system could be improved in terms of providing more economic incentives for operators to fully reclaim disturbed lands.

An analytical approach with a reliable logic and a ranking policy for post-mining land-use determination

Because it is the post-mining land-use that prescribes the methods, the measures and the costs of mine reclamation, a major implicit goal of mine reclamation is to determine an after-use option. Therefore, there should be an analytical approach to optimize the determination of post-mining land-use. A Mined Land Suitability Analysis (MLSA) framework, which had been previously derived from reclamation practice reports of mines and other disturbed lands, is used in combination with two Multi-Attribute Decision-Making (MADM) techniques to provide the required analytical approach. In the proposed approach the decision makers consist of the most related experts and the identified stakeholders. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method is used to determine global weights of MLSA framework attributes via pair-wise comparison matrixes composed by each individual expert. Once the global weight vector of the attributes is calculated using AHP, they are incorporated into the decision matrices composed by stakeholders and passed to the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), which is a distance-based MADM technique and is used to determine preference order of post-mining land uses.

Economics of Willow Pyrolysis After Phytoextraction

The Campine is a vast cross-border area in the northeast of Belgium and southeast of the Netherlands that has been contaminated with heavy metals. As traditional excavation techniques are too expensive, phytoremediation is preferred. Economically viable conversion techniques for the biomass are researched in order to lower reclamation costs and to guarantee the income of the local farmers, mainly cultivating roughage for dairy cattle rearing. Energy generation by means of pyrolysis of willow from short-rotation coppice seems to be very interesting. This article aims to search for the maximum possible biomass price so that the net present value of the profits stemming from energy conversion based on pyrolysis is at least positive.

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The two most common options for post-mining land uses in the southern Appalachians are hayland/pasture or forestry. Hayland/pasture has become the predominant reclamation type due to strict regulation standards requiring quick and dense erosion control by herbaceous cover. Recently, more landowners have become interested in returning mined land to an economically valuable post-mining land use. Current research has provided the biological and technical information needed to reclaim mine lands to productive forest stands and achieve bond release. Cost information though has been lacking or variable at best. The purpose of this study was to understand the processes of reclamation for both forestry and hayland/pasture, and calculate detailed cost estimates for both reclamation types. Total costs of reclamation were determined using a cost- engineering method in conjunction with Office of Surface Mining Regulation and Enforcement bond-calculation worksheets. In all states analyzed, pasture reclamation was more costly on a per acre basis. In Ohio, reclamation costs differed by only $50 per acre between pasture and forestry reclamation. On the high end, reclamation costs differed by nearly $500 per acre for pasture versus forestry in West Virginia. Grading costs have the greatest impact on the difference between forestry and pasture reclamation. Forestry reclamation should involve only grading the site with one dozer pass to prevent compaction of minesoils which inhibits tree growth. Pasture reclamation requires more grading passes to prepare the seedbed, requiring four passes. Herbaceous seeding costs were higher for pasture reclamation due to higher application rates, but differences were not as substantial as the cost of grading. Fertilizer and lime costs were not substantively different between forestry and pasture reclamation. These cost estimates provide useful tools for mine operators and landowners to determine the most economical and suitable post-mining land use for their individual property.

Using Aquaculture as a Post-mining Land Use in West Virginia

Using aquaculture as a post-mining land use has resulted in financial savings in site reclamation, increased positive media attention for coal companies, and new biosecure water sources for commercial aquaculture operations in the West Virginia coal region. Large underground coal mines in Appalachia have created numerous gravity flow sources of water. These mine water sources are often nearly ideal in temperature, alkalinity, and pH for trout and have the additional value of being devoid of any serious fish pathogens. At one site, modifying the post-mining land use permit to allow the water flowing from the portal of a closed mine to be used to produce commercial rainbow trout for the recreational market reduced site reclamation costs by nearly $450,000 (US). At another site, an acid mine water treatment plant was converted into a quality public fishing park with healthy warm water species (channel catfish, largemouth bass, and bluegill sunfish). The county park is now being used for educational and recreational purposes to the benefit of the whole community.

The water reclamation and reuse project of El Prat de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain

Water reclamation and reuse have become essential components of water resources management in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, by helping to develop additional water resources in the lower Llobregat River, one of its main sources of water supply. By generating a reliable flow of 300,000 m3/day of high quality reclaimed water, the options available for integrated water resources management have widely expanded to allow in-stream river water substitution, restoration of natural wetland areas, agricultural irrigation, and supply to a seawater intrusion barrier. Those management options have been possible thanks to the implementation of an extensive water distribution system that allows distribution of reclaimed water to a point 15 km upstream of the reclamation facility, and to a seawater intrusion barrier within a few kilometres of the plant. The cost of producing reclaimed water using a physico-chemical process (0.05 euro/m3) and the investment required for such a facility (0.21 euro/m3 annual capacity) are very close to those of similar large scale projects in Spain. However, higher degrees of treatment, such as demineralization for agricultural irrigation and for injection into a seawater intrusion barrier, result in considerable increases of both water reclamation cost and investment costs.

UCLA and Virginia Tech develop novel desalination technologies

Research that is being done in the US is aiming to develop improved and enhanced desalination technologies. Scientists at the University of California have developed a reverse osmosis membrane that promises to reduce the cost of sea-water desalination and wastewater reclamation. Researchers at Virginia Tech have created a new polymer membrane for reverse osmosis that is resistant to chlorine. Here, we provide a summary of both technologies.

A practical guide to re-treatment of gold processing residues

Re-processing of “old” residue tailings has proved to be a profitable business for several operations, usually when incorporated into an existing facility to supplement declining ore arisings. These resources often prove to be a source of “cheap gold” since the high mining and feed preparation costs have already been incurred and only “variable” treatment costs are incurred in addition to the relatively low reclamation costs. Advances in processing technology, together with a degree of gold release through ageing of the ore over many years, often provide gold recovery in the range 50–60% (headgrade around 0.4–0.5 g/t), which is sufficient to cover the low processing costs and make a positive contribution to the profitability of an operation. Additional benefits such as releasing land for urban development or reducing environmental liabilities may also flow from this type of exercise. The paper covers key practical aspects of developing and implementing a residue re-treatment project beginning with evaluation of the resource, through the implementation phase and into final closure.

Assessing Reclamation Features and Estimating Reclamation Costs on Abandoned, Inactive, and Permitted Mines Using Real-Time GPS and Tablet Computers

Real time mobile mapping is now a reality for natural resource professionals such as Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Reclamation Specialists, Mine Inspectors, and Permit Reviewers. During the early 1990's, lightweight global positioning system (GPS) receivers first opened the door for field professionals to accurately locate geographic features and environmental problems without traditional surveying crews and equipment. Further developments in GPS technology during the late 1990's enabled improvements in accuracy of GPS data with the introduction of real-time GPS correction equipment such as portable beacon receivers and Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) enabled GPS units. However, standard GPS receivers and even the higher-end GPS mapping equipment lacked the power and capabilities to seamlessly move from the office to the field and back without multiple data conversion and correction exercises. Recent innovations in Tablet computers, card type GPS receivers, integrated GPS technologies along with Geographic Information System (GIS) and Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CAD) software make it possible to use existing aerial photography, satellite imagery, and electronic permitting data to easily and accurately locate natural resource problem features, produce ready-to-use GIS data and maps, conduct in field CAD design, and seamlessly extract the data back in the office. The Office of Surface Mining (OSM) continues efforts in applying mobile computing devices and software to permitting and AML field work. This technology allows Inspectors to take maps and permit data to the field for inspection and verification of mining and permitting activities. The application of AML design and re-design in the field is also being applied along with traditional methods to eventually integrate mobile computing as a tool in AML and Regulatory work. This technology will result in a more efficient means of implementing the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA).

Reclaimed municipal wastewater - a potential water resource in China

Due to water resource shortage and socio-economic development within twenty years, China faces serious problems of water supply and water pollution. Several criteria and suitable reclamation processes related to water reuse have been created in China, which are helpful to improve the situation of water scarcity. In the future, reclaimed municipal wastewater reuse will mainly be developed for urban and industrial use. Potential supply quantity of reclaimed water, quality of reclaimed water, and reclamation cost are favorable to potential reuses. Based on further public environmental education, on a relevant development of national and local standards for reclaimed water quality, and on an increase of sanitary rate, more and more planned reclaimed water reuse projects would be expected in China.

Environmental Health And Safety Procedures For Operating Facilities

Abstract This paper outlines the basic requirements for Environmental, Health and Safety (EH&S) Guidelines in field operations, and how they relate to the overall E, H&S management plan for an organization. The paper addresses the delivery of specific guidance to field personnel. The main segments of field procedures are briefly described, including:Policy and guiding principles.General principles and administration.Hazard identification, hazard control and operating procedures.Environmental protection.Emergency response.Training and education.Contractor requirements. The paper also discusses new methods to deliver updated or new guidance to personnel in a cost effective and efficient manner, and also contains a partial listing of relevant reference information. Policy and Guiding Principles There must be agreement between the various stakeholders to save and protect the public, employees and company property with respect to environment health and safety. This requires development and implementation of an overall policy statement and a set of general guiding principles by the company and acknowledgement by all employees to accept and work within these "rules" and to proactively promote them within the company and its operations. It is important to realize that at the present time the structure of organizations has changed dramatically and the lines between management and employees have become blurred, if indeed they have not disappeared. For certain operations, front line employees or contractors may carry a high degree of responsibility and may be considered management if this is orally understood or outlined in employment or contractual agreements. Typically a company policy contains a commitment to:Safeguard human health and protect the environment in all of its operations;Assess the effects on worker safety as well as potential impairment of the environment and public health resulting from development activities;Comply with all laws and regulatory requirements in business activities;Reduce to an absolute minimum the final reclamation cost;Implement remedial measures in an efficient and effective manner in the event of mishap. The policy must be signed by the chief executive officer of the company and publicly displayed to be effective. Underlying the policy are guiding principles which address responsibility of all workers, priority of EH&S, recognition of excellent performance and emphasis on continuous improvement. It is important to recognize the limitations of guidelines, the possibility of human error and the need to be constantly on the alert for hidden or poorly understood risks. Finally, it is important to obtain the signed commitment of all employees and contractors to abide by these principles. General Principles and Administration These are required to convert the policy into specific and workable guidelines with definition of expected performance and measurement of same. These may be broken down into the following topics. Responsibility There are three levels of responsibility that encompass all work situations-management, supervisors, and employees or workers.

A comparison of spatial interpolation methods and a fuzzy areal evaluation scheme in environmental site characterization

This study aims to evaluate various well-known spatial interpolation methods used in identifying hot-spots during site investigations on brownfields. Before any reclamation is carried out zones within a site with contaminant levels above the threshold limits should be identified correctly with minimum reclamation costs. The latter implies that all contaminated areas are to be determined while minimizing the space claimed for reclamation. In other words, clean areas should not be declared as contaminated. This issue is crucial both with respect to minimizing health hazards in human use after reclamation and also with respect to minimizing reclamation costs. Here, we conduct a numerical survey on the performance of spatial interpolation techniques on 360 hypothetical sites which are generated according to a given experimental design. The effects of the number of non-overlapping hot-spots in a site, the percentage of the area contaminated, and the effects of the sampling pattern are observed during the experimentation. Furthermore, as an alternative site evaluation scheme, we propose a new fuzzy areal site assessment scheme (FASA) which is independent of the assumptions implied by spatial statistics and compare its performance with those of spatial interpolation methods.

Caracterização de resíduos orgânicos retirados de salinas e possibilidades de seu uso como fertilizante

A desativação de salinas em Cabo Frio, estado do Rio de Janeiro, vem gerando grande quantidade de resíduos orgânicos, originados do acúmulo de algas marinhas. Em 1996, estudos realizados na UFRRJ avaliaram o potencial de aproveitamento desses resíduos como fertilizantes orgânicos. Amostras do resíduo apresentaram altos teores de Ca, Mg, K, Na e S, elevados valores de densidades aparente e real, retenção de água, pH e condutividade elétrica; 89% do conteúdo de Na encontrava-se em formas solúveis, possibilitando sua remoção por lavagens. Efetuou-se um ensaio para dessalinização do resíduo, quando aplicado ao solo arenoso local, em esquema fatorial 4 x 5: quatro misturas resíduo:solo (0:1, 1:100, 1:50 e 1:10 em peso), combinadas com cinco doses de gesso (0, 1/2, 1, 2 e 4 vezes a necessidade de gesso) com três repetições, sendo efetuadas sete aplicações de água. Na mistura 1:10, houve pequena percolação decorrente da grande viscosidade. Do total lixiviado de Ca, Mg e Na, 66, 86 e 98%, respectivamente, foram removidos nas duas primeiras lavagens. A adição do resíduo aumentou os teores de água, C, N, P, Ca e Mg das misturas ao final do ensaio, quando comparadas ao solo puro. O gesso não teve efeito na lixiviação do Na e no teor final de Na trocável. As lavagens removeram cerca de 90% do Na e reduziram a salinidade, mas as misturas mantiveram caráter sódico ao final do ensaio. A viabilidade de aproveitamento do resíduo está condicionada aos custos de seu tratamento, quando comparados à aquisição de outro adubo orgânico.

Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure

Abstract The decision to initiate and continue production at any mine operation is based upon economic criteria. Key determinants in the decision—making process include the current and predicted market value of the commodity, and the cost of production. Production costs necessarily include expenditure related to environmental management during operations. The costs of reclamation and closure are usually the most significant throughout the project life cycle. Consequently, the cost of environmental management during operations and at closure is considered at an early stage in mine planning, often during project feasibility analysis. This paper presents the main issues of environmental cost management which are assessed during feasibility studies, and sometimes as early as the pre‐feasibility assessment. The process of reducing costs by incorporating sequential reclamation and phased closure concurrently with mining operations is advocated. The concepts of systematic reclamation and closure technology selec...