Switching Costs Research Articles

Reversal rewards drive language switching during observational learning: Evidence from a dual-brain EEG study

Abstract Research on the cognitive neural mechanisms of language control often overlooks the role of rewards. To investigate how reversal rewards affect bilingual language switching during observational learning, we conducted a dual-brain electroencephalography (EEG) study. Participants, classified as direct learners or observers, performed a voluntary language-switching task under dynamic reward conditions. Our results demonstrated that both direct learners and observers exhibited high correct acquisition rates for the switch and non-switch behaviors in both pre- and post-reversal phases. Notably, direct learners and observers showed reduced switch costs in the post-reversal phase, highlighting enhanced language control efficiency. EEG analyses revealed that direct learners exhibited late positive component (LPC) switch costs in both pre- and post-reversal phases, while observers showed LPC switch costs only in the post-reversal phase. These findings support the Adaptive Control Hypothesis by highlighting the adaptability of language control mechanisms in response to dynamic reward environments during direct and observational learning.

The neural mechanisms of emotional flexibility influenced by the emotional valence shift direction and preparation effect.

Emotional flexibility refers to an individual's ability to change emotional responses in constantly changing environments to adapt to different situations. This study aims to use the Emotional Switching Task (EST) paradigm, combined with Electroencephalogram (EEG) technology and behavioral experiments, to explore the impact of emotional valence shift directions and preparation effects on the switching cost of emotional flexibility. The results found that when individuals switch from positive emotional valence to positive emotional valence, the switching cost is smaller than other transition directions. In addition, emotional flexibility exhibits a preparation effect, with a 2000 ms preparation time resulting in a smaller switching cost than a 600 ms preparation time. The electrophysiological data, more specifically the N2, CNV, SPN and LPP components, reveal the neural mechanisms by which emotional valence shift direction and preparation time influence emotional flexibility across the three neural computational stages of emotion regulation. This study is beneficial for establishing a potential mechanism model for the switching cost of emotional flexibility.

Continuance intention to use mobile fitness applications: the role of switching costs, guilt and neutralization techniques

PurposeThe study investigates the factors influencing the continuance intention to use Mobile Fitness Applications (MFAs), focusing on the roles of switching costs, guilt, and neutralization techniques in addressing temporary discontinuance.Design/methodology/approachA total of 212 valid responses were collected via an online survey in Malaysia. The data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to understand the relationships between the constructs.FindingsThe study confirms the significant impact of the Expectation Confirmation Model (ECM) constructs on the continuance intention to use MFAs. It highlights how users employ neutralization techniques to mitigate guilt from temporary discontinuance. Additionally, the study reveals that switching costs moderate the relationship between cognitive satisfaction and continuance intention, as well as between guilt and continuance intention. However, the direct effect of switching costs on continuance intention is negligible.Originality/valueThis research extends continuance intention literature by integrating switching costs, guilt, and neutralization techniques into the ECM framework, providing novel insights into user behavior regarding MFA discontinuance.

Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Kepuasan dan Niat Pembelian Ulang dengan Peran Moderasi Biaya Peralihan dan Komitmen Perbankan Digital

The study aims to examine the impact of service quality, reputation, customer trust, price perception, satisfaction, switching costs, and commitment on the repurchase intentions of digital banking app users. The research targets digital banking app users who remain uncertain about trust, reputation, and satisfaction. The findings indicate that service quality, reputation, and customer trust significantly affect customer satisfaction, while price perception has no significant impact due to the minimal cost differences among digital banking services. Service quality, reputation, and trust indirectly influence repurchase intentions through satisfaction as a mediating variable. Switching costs were found to moderate the relationship between satisfaction and repurchase intentions, while commitment does not. This suggests that customer satisfaction directly affects repurchase intentions without the need for commitment as a moderating variable.

Dopaminergic Mechanisms of Cognitive Flexibility: An [18F]Fallypride PET Study.

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to appropriately adapt one's thinking and behavior to changing environmental demands and is conceptualized as an aspect of executive function. The dopamine system has been implicated in cognitive flexibility; however, a direct, that is, neurochemical, link to cognitive flexibility has not been shown yet. The aim of this study was, therefore, to investigate how cognitive flexibility is mediated by dopaminergic signaling in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). Methods: Eighteen participants were measured in a PET study with 174 ± 12 MBq of the D2/3 receptor ligand [18F]fallypride in a block design with 2 parts. While participants processed 2 tasks sequentially without rule switching on a computer screen in the first part of the PET scan, they had to flexibly switch between the 2 task rules after 100 min after injection in the second part. Dopamine release (γ) was quantified using the linearized simplified reference region model contrasting the 2 task blocks (switching vs. no-switching/baseline). Results: The statistical analysis of the parametric γ-images showed that the increased cognitive demand during task switching induced a displacement of the D2/3 receptor ligand [18F]fallypride in the vmPFC (maximum T value = 13.8; cluster size: 528 voxels; familywise error rate-corrected P < 0.001; mean γ = 0.022 ± 0.006 min-1). Furthermore, a correlation between behavioral switch costs and vmPFC [18F]fallypride displacement suggested that participants showing greater dopamine release were more efficient in task switching. Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first experimental PET study to show direct involvement of dopamine in the vmPFC in a task-switching paradigm, confirming model assumptions about the neurochemical basis of cognitive flexibility.

Low-cost carriers means low-cost tourists? Exploring the expenditure patterns beyond airline ticket prices

This paper investigates the relationship between air travel and international tourism expenditure, with a focus on distinguishing the impacts of low-cost carriers (LCCs) and full-service carriers (FSCs). Leveraging a unique dataset of 407,116 individual-level observations from the Bank of Italy’s survey on international tourists in Italy (2013–2019), combined with seat capacity data from the Official Airline Guide (OAG), we analyze spending behavior across diverse categories. Our findings reveal that air travelers spend 18.4% more than non-air travelers; however, tourists flying with LCCs are associated with significantly lower expenditure than those using FSCs. Crucially, this behavior is not solely driven by lower airfares, as LCCs continue to attract cost-conscious tourists even when fares are comparable to FSCs. This nuanced relationship underscores the influence of switching costs, service perceptions, and carrier familiarity on consumer choices. These findings contribute to the broader understanding of consumer behavior in the air transport industry, with implications for optimizing economic and environmental outcomes.

Service innovation in telecommunication: The path to customer loyalty through enhanced customer satisfaction

This study focuses on the Nepalese telecom sector, where service innovation is crucial for increasing customer satisfaction and gaining loyalty. In the rapidly evolving technological landscape, telecom service providers must continuously improve their offerings and customer experiences to draw in new customers and maintain their competitiveness. Based on a sample of 245 telecom customers, this study investigates how innovative service offerings lead to higher satisfaction levels and, in turn, greater customer loyalty. This study uses structural equation modeling (SEM) and a quantitative research approach to examine the association between customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and service innovation in Nepal’s telecom industry. The study confirmed that service innovation (β = 0.23, p ≤ 0.01) directly influences customer satisfaction and significantly (β = 0.32, p ≤ 0.01) enhances customer loyalty in the Nepalese telecom sector. However, the study finds a negligible indirect impact of service innovation (β = 0.12, UL = 0.292, LL = -0.003) on customer loyalty when customer satisfaction is considered a mediator, indicating that customer satisfaction does not fully influence this relationship in the Nepalese telecom sector, suggesting that other variables, such as price sensitivity, switching costs, and consistency in service quality may also affect the relationship between service innovation, customer satisfaction, and loyalty. The results of this study will help the Nepalese telecom sector reevaluate its service innovation attempts, guiding executives to update their programs by offering new, reliable, high-quality services at affordable prices while considering different aspects of service innovation for strategic planning to attract loyal customers.

Impact of online food delivery usage on switching costs, variety seeking and marketing exposure

Impact of online food delivery usage on switching costs, variety seeking and marketing exposure

Understanding designers’ switching intention to AI painting tools using the PPM framework

In recent years, the emergence of artificial intelligence painting tools has significantly changed the creative activities and future development of designers, but studies specifically addressing designers’ inclinations to transition to AI painting tools are scarce. Therefore, to understand designers’ switching intentions toward AI painting tools, this study proposed a research model based on the push–pull–mooring framework. Data were collected from 320 Chinese designers and analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that the attractiveness of AI painting tools is the main factor that affects the designers’ intentions to switch, followed by switching costs and dissatisfaction with traditional painting tools. Moreover, perceived pleasantness increased the attractiveness of AI painting tools, and individuals’ habits greatly improved switching costs. These results provided valuable empirical evidence for the future advancement of AI painting tools. The findings of this study not only provide light on the motivations behind designers’ decisions during periods of technological change but also offer valuable references for future technological directions in the design industry and the evolution of designers’ professional roles. Furthermore, it provides important recommendations for AI painting tool developers, emphasizing the need to enhance the tools’ creativity and appeal.

Linking Context to Language Switching: Effects of Background Noise on Bilingual Language Comprehension.

In the present study, we set out to examine the effect of background noise on bilingual language comprehension between a person's first language (L1) and second language (L2). Language control systems seem to systematically engage in bilingual language production, as evidenced by the presence of switch costs with slower responses to switch trials than repeat trials. However, this systematic engagement does not uniformly apply to comprehension, as the involvement of language control in bilingual comprehension may vary depending on external contexts. In two experiments, we investigated how background noise influenced language switching in comprehension for unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals. Overall, when comprehending words from two languages, participants experienced significant language switch costs across all conditions, but smaller switch costs were observed in the noise condition than in the quiet condition. However, the symmetrical patterns of switch costs were not modulated by background noise. This is the first study that supports the flexibility of bilingual language comprehension depending on the presence of background noise, expanding the adaptive control hypothesis.

The cost of perspective switching: Constraints on simultaneous activation.

Visual perspective taking often involves transitioning between perspectives, yet the cognitive mechanisms underlying this process remain unclear. The current study draws on insights from task- and language-switching research to address this gap. In Experiment 1, 79 participants judged the perspective of an avatar positioned in various locations, observing either the rectangular or the square side of a rectangular cube hanging from the ceiling. The avatar's perspective was either consistent or inconsistent with the participant's, and its computation sometimes required mental transformation. The task included both single-position blocks, in which the avatar's location remained fixed across all trials, and mixed-position blocks, in which the avatar's position changed across trials. Performance was compared across trial types and positions. In Experiment 2, 126 participants completed a similar task administered online, with more trials, and performance was compared at various points within the response time distribution (vincentile analysis). Results revealed a robust switching cost. However, mixing costs, which reflect the ability to maintain multiple task sets active in working memory, were absent, even in slower response times. Additionally, responses to the avatar's position varied as a function of consistency with the participants' viewpoint and the angular disparity between them. These findings suggest that perspective switching is costly, people cannot activate multiple perspectives simultaneously, and the computation of other people's visual perspectives varies with cognitive demands.

Determinants of switching intention towards metaverse shopping: a PPM approach

ABSTRACT Individuals are motivated to switch to alternatives when their existing retailers do not meet their expectations. The study intends to examine the factors affecting the decision of consumers walking out of physical stores and opting for metaverse shopping through the PPM (Push, Pull, Mooring) framework. The data is gathered using a structured online questionnaire through Google Forms and SMART-PLS software is used to evaluate the results. The study revealed that expectation disconfirmation and alternative attractiveness both significantly impacted switching intention. Buyers’ intention to switch was positively influenced by social influence, content creation, and tranquility. Remarkably, switching costs had no impact on the customer’s switching intention. This paper contributes to research as it is the first of its kind to explore the switching intention from offline to metaverse shopping using the PPM framework. The results provide valuable insights to help retail brand owners, understand and identify the key attractions for consumers.

Flexible Reconfiguration for Optimal Operation of Distribution Network Under Renewable Generation and Load Uncertainty

The primary objective when operating a distribution network is to minimize operating costs while taking technical constraints into account. Minimizing the operational costs is difficult when there is a high penetration of renewable resources and variability of loads, which introduces uncertainty. In this paper, a flexible, dynamic reconfiguration model is developed that enables a distribution network to minimize operating costs on an hourly basis. The model fitness function is to minimize the system costs, including power loss, voltage deviation, purchased power from the upstream network, renewable generation, and switching costs. The uncertainty of the load and generation from renewable energies is planned to use their probability density functions via a scenario-based approach. The suggested optimization problem is solved using a metaheuristic approach based on the coati optimization algorithm (COA) due to the nonlinearity and non-convexity of the problem. To evaluate the performance of the presented approach, it is validated on the IEEE 33-bus radial system and TPC 83-bus real system. The simulation results show the impact of dynamic reconfiguration on reducing operation costs. It is found that dynamic reconfiguration is an efficient solution for reducing power losses and total energy drawn from the upstream network by increasing the number of switching operations.

The push-pull-mooring model of consumer service switching: a meta-analytical review to guide future research

PurposeFor nearly 2 decades, the push-pull-mooring (PPM) model has been used frequently by scholars to explain consumers’ service switching intention and behavior. However, heterogeneity and incomparability between PPM model studies are prevalent issues: The chosen predictor variables, their categorization, their measurement, reported effect sizes, and effect directions vary considerably. By addressing these issues, the present meta-analytical review enables future researchers applying the PPM model to identify relevant variables and use valid measurements.Design/methodology/approachBased on 148 empirical studies employing the PPM model, the variables used to predict consumers’ service switching intention and behavior, their frequency of use, their categorization into push, pull, and mooring factors, and their measurement are assessed. The effect sizes and directions of the relationships between these variables and consumers’ service switching intention and behavior are analyzed using meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Additionally, the predictive capacity of this model and the influence of moderators are assessed.FindingsAmong the 148 empirical studies, 382 different independent variables were used. The three most frequently used and distinctly categorized independent variables are dissatisfaction (push), alternative attractiveness (pull), and switching costs (mooring). Overall, 152 unique sources were cited to measure these variables and the dependent variables. Dissatisfaction and alternative attractiveness increase switching intention, which positively affects switching behavior, while switching costs decrease switching intention. The model explains 30% of the variance in switching intention and 31% of the variance in switching behavior.Originality/valueThis study provides the first meta-analytical review of the PPM model to guide future research systematically.

Preparatory Switches of Auditory Spatial and Non-Spatial Attention Among Simultaneous Voices.

Can one shift attention among voices at a cocktail party during a silent pause? Researchers have required participants to attend to one of two simultaneous voices - cued by its gender or location. Switching the target gender or location has resulted in a performance 'switch cost' - which was recently shown to reduce with preparation when a gender cue was presented in advance. The current study asks if preparation for a switch is also effective when a voice is selected by location. We displayed a word or image 50/800/1400 ms before the onset of two simultaneous dichotic (male and female) voices to indicate whether participants should classify as odd/even the number spoken by the voice on the left or on the right; in another condition, we used gender cues. Preparation reduced the switch cost in both spatial-and gender-cueing conditions. Performance was better when each voice was heard on the same side as on the preceding trial, suggesting 'binding' of non-spatial and spatial voice features - but this did not materially influence the reduction in switch cost with preparation, indicating that preparatory attentional shifts can be effective within a single (task-relevant) dimension. We also asked whether words or pictures are more effective for cueing a voice. Picture cues resulted in better performance than word cues, especially when the interval between the cue and the stimulus was short, suggesting that (presumably phonological) processes involved in the recognition of the word cue interfered with the (near) concurrent encoding of the target voice's speech.

Item repetition matters: methodological considerations in bilingual language control research

ABSTRACT Language switching experiments often vary in stimuli list sizes, leading to differences in item repetition frequency and potentially obscuring our understanding of bilingual language control. This study addresses how item repetition frequency affects switching costs and the reversed language dominance effect (i.e. better performance in a non-dominant language in mixed language naming) among bilinguals with varying L2 proficiencies, and how these effects evolve as the task progresses. Two experiments were conducted with 29 low- and 36 high-proficiency Chinese-English bilinguals using a picture naming task. One experiment presented a low-repetition stimuli list, and the other a high-repetition set. Results showed that switching costs remained regardless of item repetition frequency. However, the influence of L2 proficiency and language dominance on switching costs was only evident in the low-repetition list. Notably, as the task progressed, switching costs decreased in L1 Chinese but increased in L2 English, regardless of item repetition frequency or proficiency. These findings highlight the importance of methodological considerations in language control experiments. Understanding how these factors influence the experiments’ outcomes is crucial for accurately interpreting bilingual language control and avoiding undesirable confounds.

Age-related Electrophysical Correlates of Cross-modal Attention Switching.

The human experience demands seamless attentional switches between sensory modalities. Aging raises questions about how declines in auditory and visual processing affect cross-modal attention switching. This study used a cued cross-modal attention-switching paradigm where visual and auditory stimuli were simultaneously presented on either spatially congruent or incongruent sides. A modality cue indicated the target modality, requiring a spatially left versus right key-press response. EEG recordings were collected during task performance. We investigated whether the mixing costs (decreased performance for repetition trials in a mixed task compared with a single task) and switch costs (decreased performance for a switch of target modality compared with a repetition) in cross-modal attention-switching paradigms would exhibit similarities in terms of behavioral performance and the ERP components to those observed in the traditional unimodal attention-switching paradigms. Specifically, we focused on the ERP components: cue-locked P3 (mixing/switch-related increased positivity), target-locked P3 (mixing/switch-related decreased positivity), and target-locked lateralized readiness potential (mixing/switch-related longer latency). In addition, we assessed how aging impacts cross-modal attention-switching performance. Results revealed that older adults exhibited more pronounced mixing and switch costs than younger adults, especially when visual and auditory stimuli were presented on incongruent sides. ERP findings showed increased cue-locked P3 amplitude, prolonged cue-locked P3 latency, decreased target-locked P3 amplitude, prolonged target-locked P3 latency in association with switch costs, and prolonged onset latency of the target-locked lateralized readiness potential in association with the mixing costs. Age-related effects were significant only for cue-locked P3 amplitude, cue-locked P3 latency (switch-related), and target-locked P3 latency (switch-related). These findings suggest that the larger mixing costs and switch costs in older adults were due to the inefficient use of modality cues to update a representation of the relevant task sets, requiring more processing time for evaluating and categorizing the target.

Modeling & Optimization for Streaming Listening Demand

Digital delivery of songs has radically changed the way people can enjoy music, the sort of music available for listening, and the manner by which rights holders are compensated for their contributions to songs. Subscribers can enjoy an unlimited potpourri of songs and sounds, uniquely free of incremental acquisition or switching costs. This shift reveals listening patterns governed by affinity, boredom, attention budgets, etc. Listening patterns can be driven instantaneously, dynamically, organically or programmatically (playlists, for example). Listening demand is in a new paradigm, with a commensurate change in revenue implications. These new listening phenomena deprecate past orthodoxy around content curation in which a listener made a single purchase of a song. This point-of-sale model is now insufficient: demand revenue is proportional to song affinity—e.g., by how often a song is listened to within a time interval—and can be modeled as a time dependent process. We explore modeling digital on-demand demand and employ a fully Bayesian probabilistic model that: (1) yields estimators for multi-level effects on song demand and (2) naturally joins with multi-stage Linear Optimization scheme to optimize the same.

Supply Chain Disruption and Import Strategy: Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake

AbstractGlobal supply chain networks foster collaboration but accelerate cross‐border risk transmission. This study investigates the effect of the 2011 East Japan earthquake on Chinese firms' import strategies. The findings reveal that the disruption led to a shift toward supply chain concentration, with firms reducing the diversification of import sources. There was a slight increase in the number of countries from which firms sourced imports but import shares became more concentrated, reflecting a reliance on fewer, centralized suppliers. Firms affected by the earthquake prioritized long‐term partnerships and sought suppliers in regions with lower natural disaster risks, aiming to mitigate supply chain vulnerabilities and reduce switching costs. The findings also show that state‐owned enterprises, private firms, and research and development‐intensive firms were more inclined to centralize their import sources. This suggests that these firms, leveraging their larger scale, substantial resources, and robust risk management strategies, favored a more concentrated sourcing approach in order to better control their supply chains and ensure stability in the face of global disruptions.

The Role of Switching Cost in Third-Party Logistics

The Role of Switching Cost in Third-Party Logistics