Costa Rican Sample Research Articles

Optimal cutoff scores of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment to detect mild cognitive impairment and dementia in Costa Rican older adults

ABSTRACT Background The burden of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (AD/ADRD) in Costa Rica is expected to become one of the highest in the region. Early detection will help optimize resources and improve primary care interventions. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) has shown good sensitivity for detecting mild cognitive impairment (MCI), but specificity varies depending on the population. This motivated the analysis of different cutoffs to minimize false-positive classifications in a Costa Rican sample for its use in clinical settings. Methods Data was analyzed from 516 memory clinic outpatients (148 cognitively normal, 260 MCI, 108 mild AD/ADRD; mean age 66.3 ± 10.8 years) who underwent complete neurological and neuropsychological assessment and were diagnosed by consensus. Optimal MoCA cutoff scores were identified using a multiple cutoff approach. Results Overall, a cutoff score of ≥ 23 showed better accuracy to distinguish between normal cognition (NC) and MCI (sensitivity 73%, specificity 83%). When analyzed by educational levels, a cutoff score of ≥ 21 showed better accuracy for ≤ 6 years (sensitivity 80%, specificity 76%), ≥23 for 7–12 years (sensitivity 86%, specificity 76%) and ≥ 24 for > 12 years (sensitivity 70%, specificity 85%). For distinguishing MCI from mild AD/ADRD, the optimal overall cutoff score was ≥ 15 (sensitivity 66%, specificity 85%). When stratified by years of education, cutoff scores of ≥ 14 showed better accuracy for ≤ 6 years (sensitivity 70%, specificity 88%), ≥15 for 7–12 years (sensitivity 46%, specificity 95%) and ≥ 17 for > 12 years (sensitivity 67%, specificity 93%). Conclusions A MoCA cutoff score of ≥ 23 in the Costa Rican population showed better diagnostic accuracy for detecting MCI and may reduce the false positive rate. Our findings may be helpful for primary care clinical settings and further referral criteria.

Exploring Differences in Dietary Diversity and Micronutrient Adequacy between Costa Rican and Mexican Adolescents.

Diet diversity becomes especially relevant during adolescence to satisfy the adequate micronutrient intake. Diet diversity (DD) and micronutrient probability of adequacy (PA) were studied in 818 Costa Rican (CR) and 1202 Mexican (MX) adolescents aged 13-18 years. DD was compared using the Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) score. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves were employed to identify the optimal MDD for each sample from the respective countries. The mean MDD for the overall CR sample was 4.17 ± 1.43 points, and for the MX sample, the mean MDD was 4.68 ± 1.48 points. The proportion of adolescents with a DD was significantly higher in Costa Rica than in Mexico (66.5% vs. 55.6%; p < 0.0001). Also, DD was higher in rural Costa Rican adolescents, while no difference was found in the MX adolescents by area of residence. CR adolescents reported significantly higher PA than MX participants for 6 of the 11 micronutrients assessed. The calcium PA in MX adolescents was significantly higher than in the CR sample (MX: 0.84 vs. CR: 0.03; p < 0.0001), while low PA was obtained for iron in both countries (CR: 0.01 vs. MX: 0.07; p < 0.0001). In Costa Rica and Mexico, nutritional interventions and assessing the compliance of food-fortifying programs are needed to improve the PA of diverse micronutrients.

Acute stress and fear scales during the COVID-19 pandemic: development and evaluation in a Costa Rican sample

Acute stress and fear scales during the COVID-19 pandemic: development and evaluation in a Costa Rican sample

Underlying domains of anxiety trait in a Costa Rican sample: Preliminary results

BackgroundImprecision of the psychiatric phenotype might partially explain the failure of genetic research to identify genes that contribute to susceptibility of anxiety disorders. Previous research concluded two underlying constructs, worry and rumination, might explain anxiety sub-syndromic symptoms in Costa Rican patients with history of mania. The goal of the current study is to explore the presence of latent constructs for quantitative anxiety in a group of subjects with a wide diagnostic phenotype and non-affected individuals. MethodsWe conducted an exploratory factor analysis of anxiety trait in 709 subjects. Our sample was comprised by 419 subjects with psychiatric disorders and 290 non-affected individuals. We used principal factors extraction method with squared multiple correlations of the STAI (trait subscale). ResultsWe found the following preliminary results: a three-factor solution with a good simple structure and statistical adequacy was obtained with a KMO of 0.92 (>0.6) and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity of 5644,44 (p < 0.05). The STAI items were grouped into three factors: anxiety-absent, worry and rumination based on the characteristics of the symptoms. ConclusionTwo underlying constructs, worry and rumination may explain anxiety sub-syndromic symptoms in Costa Rican subjects. Our proposed underlying structure of subsyndromal anxiety in individuals should be considered as an important factor in defining better phenotypic characterizations on a broader diagnostic concept. Worry and rumination as a phenotypic characterization may assist in genotyping; however, its predictive value on actual illness outcome still requires more research. The Genome-Wide QTL analysis for anxiety trait in the same sample is ongoing.

Subjective well-being key elements of Successful Aging: A study with Lifelong Learners older adults from Costa Rica and Spain

Subjective well-being is a major psychological construct in the research tradition. Along with literature, authors have distinguished between hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The aim of this study is to determine the role of some psychosocial variables plays in the perceived well-being is conceived from a hedonic or a eudaimonic perspective. The sample consisted of 1016 people of 55 years and older in a Spanish sample and 277 people of 55 years old or older from a Costa Rican sample. Both samples were part of the Longitudinal Older Learners (LOL) study. A structural model with latent variables was estimated with Mplus. The results point out that, the traditional variables included on successful aging models are relevant for explaining older adults’ well-being in both countries with some differences on the hedonic and eudaimonic approach of successful aging on the Latin cultural context studied.

Biology Teachers' Worldviews on the Global Distribution and Loss of Biodiversity: A GIS-Based Mental-Mapping Approach.

This paper explores (1) student teachers’ mental maps of the global distribution and loss of biodiversity and (2) their perception of threatened biodiversity at the national, transnational and global levels. Data was collected from a questionnaire study of student biology teachers from Germany (n = 868) and Costa Rica (n = 284). Student teachers’ mental maps matched quite well with the scientific view. Nevertheless, they clearly showed a “brazilisation bias,” meaning that the first and foremost country associated with high and threatened biodiversity was Brazil. Industrialized countries were often misconceived to have a particularly threatened biodiversity. Except for Brazil (and Costa Rica in the Costa Rican sample), most students neglected a connection between a country’s high biodiversity and its high threat as proposed by the biodiversity hotspots concept. Despite this common ground, major ethnocentric distortions merged in the composite mental maps for each sample: German students had a more global perspective on biodiversity and its loss, whereas Costa Ricans students had a more localized view. Student teachers from both countries have largely overestimated the percentage of threatened plant species on a national, transnational and global level (“overestimation bias”). In addition, the estimated percentage of threatened plant species have correspondingly increased with a greater distance from the students’ home country (“spatial optimism bias”). Results will be discussed in terms of educational implications.

M105 - POTENTIAL ASSOCIATION OF MIR-137 WITH AGE OF ONSET OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

Background MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a vital role in neurodevelopment and neuronal processes by regulating the activity of multiple genes. Noncoding variants in the miR-137 gene locus have been reported to increase the risk of schizophrenia. This microRNA has been shown to be involved in different brain processes necessary for neurogenesis, which is an important factor in schizophrenia. Additionally, several of the confirmed or predicted target genes for miR-137 have been associated with schizophrenia risk. Methods In the present study, we sequenced the miR-137 gene (including the upstream and downstream region) in 52 Costa Rican trios, consisting of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia and their parents. A TDT test was performed for the two detected variants: the schizophrenia-associated SNP rs1625579 and a previously reported VNTR located upstream of miR-137. Results No association was found between any rs1625579 allele and schizophrenia (X2=1, p=0.32). The minor allele frequency (MAF; corresponding to the C allele) in the Costa Rican sample is 0.08. For the VNTR upstream of miR-137 only the 3 and 4-repeat alleles were found. The frequency of the 4-repeat allele in our sample (MAF) was 0.19. No association (using the TDT test) was detected between any of the alleles and schizophrenia (X2=0.05, p=0.83). However, we found a lower age of onset in the affected individuals with at least one 4-repeat allele, when compared with individuals homozygous for the 3-repeat allele (t=2,3, g.l.=44, p=0,026). Discussion Age of onset of schizophrenia has clinical consequences for affected individuals; an early onset of the disorder has been reported to be associated with worse cognitive performance as well as worse functional outcomes. The presence of a higher number of repeats for the VNTR upstream of miR-137 could potentially affect expression of the gene, and in this way have an effect on the age of onset of schizophrenia symptoms. Genotyping of the VNTR in other 100 individuals with schizophrenia is ongoing, in order to confirm the putative role of variants in this locus on age of onset of the disorder.

Adult Perception Toward Videogames and Physical Activity Using Pokémon Go.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to determine perception of videogames and the use Pokémon Go in Costa Rica. Materials and Methods: A national representative sample (n = 1059) of adults aged 18 years and older was chosen to complete a face-to-face survey on videogame perceptions and the use of Pokémon Go. Statistical analyses included 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) around the estimate, multiple regression, cluster, and factor analysis. Results: The 85.2% of the population (n = 866) were familiar with videogames, especially those in the 18- to 29-year age group (96.3%) and college education (94.8%). Perceptions about videogames were negative (Addictive = 89.6%, Violence = 75.5%, Bad for health = 51.3%) and positive (Stimulate mental abilities = 59.6%, Relaxing = 55.2%, Improve family communication = 49.4%); and 28.4% perceived that people without responsibilities played videogames. Perceptions were different by age group and educational level. Age and gender were significant predictors of attitudes toward videogame playing. Pokémon Go was played by 3.9% of those respondents who knew or had heard about videogames, who reported spending 6.7 h/week (95% CI = 3.9-9.5) playing the game, walking 24.7 km (95% CI = 12.5-36.9), and covering 70.4 km (95% CI = 45.3-95.5) by other transportation means. Conclusions: Positive and negative perceptions toward videogames mediated by age and education level were found in a Costa Rican sample. Age and gender predicted attitudes toward videogame playing. A small number of participants played Pokémon Go, which might suggest that this videogame was not engaging in this population.

Abstract WMP96: Stroke Warning Signs In Spanish Speaking Communities: Camaleon Strategy Proposal

Introduction: early recognition of stroke signs lead to a better opportunity for acute management, to decrease morbidity and mortality impact. Public awareness campaigns have been developed with English language acronyms for recognition of these signs, but language and cultural differences should be taken into account for these educational strategies. Hypothesis: we assessed the hypothesis that there is a need for a validated tool for Spanish speaking population for early recognition of stroke warning signs. Material and methods: a 12-item electronic and paper-based survey for non-health related professionals evaluated the knowledge of early stroke signs in a Costa Rican sample. Using data from the FAST acronym, we developed a Spanish based acronym focused on the 3 most common symptoms, which was evaluated with medical professionals and non-medical population for clarity of message and informative content through a 10-item survey. Results: 706 non-medical professional subjects answered the evaluation survey (56.7% female, median age 33 years [IQR 24-43 years]), with 76.2% answering that they were not capable of diagnose an acute stroke, and 97.2% considering the necessity of develop an educational campaign for acute stroke signs recognition. CAMALEON acronym (CAra [face], MAno/brazo [hand/arm], LEnguaje [language] and teléfONo [telephone]) was created adapting FAST acronym to Spanish. 25 medical professionals evaluated the medical content of the Spanish acronym (based on an educational video) with a 95% of acceptance of its content to explain medical symptoms; also 91% of 100 non-medical subjects were able to recognize adequately the symptoms after viewing the video material. This academic initiative is endorsed by the World Stroke Academy from the World Stroke Organization. Conclusion: CAMALEON strategy is an adequate acronym for early recognition of acute stroke signs for Spanish speaking countries that should be validated in stroke awareness campaigns.

Is subclinical anxiety an endophenotype for bipolar I patients? A study from a Costa Rican sample

Background Although genetic influences on bipolar I disorder are well established, localization of genes that predispose to the illness has been difficult. Some genes predisposing to bipolar I disorder may be transmitted without expression of the categorical clinical phenotype. One strategy to overcome this obstacle is the use of quantitative endophenotypes, as has been done for other medical disorders. Methods We analyzed 30 bipolar I extended families (300 subjects, average family size 10.34 members, range: 2–31) and 20 unrelated healthy controls from a Costa Rican sample. Heritability and genetic correlation of the state and trait scale from the Anxiety State and Trait Inventory was computed by using the general linear model (SOLAR package software). We also assessed variation of both scores among groups (patients, relatives and controls) and tested independence of affection status. Results Heritability for state is 0.45 (SE = 0.11, p = 0.0000001) and for trait is 0.89 (SE = 0.06, p = 6.22e− 29). Genetic correlation for state and trait is 0.29, (SE = 0.12, p = 0.038–3.19e− 8). Bipolar I patients showed the highest trait score ( F = 12.17 [5,24], p = 0.002), (bipolar I patients > relatives with other pathologies, > healthy relatives > unrelated healthy controls) with normal distribution in healthy individuals and no difference regarding depression and mania current status, ( F = 0.230, df = 1, p = 0.632 and F = 1.401, df = 1, p = 0.238, respectively), contrary to the state score. Limitations Confounding factors such as comorbid disorders could affect the interaction of subclinical anxiety with mania. Due to our limited budget we were not able to re-evaluate the subjects and conduct a test retest to assess the STAI reliability and mood state independence of anxiety traits over different times. Further research is needed to evaluate if anxiety traits are specially related to bipolar I disorder in comparison with other traits such as anger, attention or response inhibition deficit, pathological impulsivity or low self-directedness. Conclusions Anxiety state and trait are heritable and share some genetic factors but only trait showed normal distribution in healthy subjects, mood current status independence and significant liability for bipolar I disorder. A stair-step distribution of trait anxiety scores in the family members and controls based on their genetic proximity to affected individuals and diagnostic status suggests that trait anxiety could be an endophenotype in these bipolar I families.

Brief communication: Evaluating grandmother effects

Women who have outlived child-bearing have long been described as postreproductive. But contributions they make to the survival or fertility of their descendants enhance the reproduction of their genes. Consequently, natural selection affects this characteristic stage of human life history. Grandmother effects can be measured in data sets that include births and deaths over several generations, but unmeasured covariates complicate the task. Here we focus on two complications: cohort shifts in mortality and fertility, and maternal age at death. We use the Utah Population Database to show that longevity of grandmothers may be associated with fewer grandchildren, as reported by Madrigal and Melendez-Obando (Am J Phys Anthropol 136 (2008) 223-229) for a Costa Rican sample, even when grandmother effects are actually positive.

Molecular genetic variation in tarpon (Megalops atlanticus Valenciennes) in the northern Atlantic Ocean

The tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) is a highly valued game fish and occasional food fish in the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean. Tarpon have a high capacity for dispersal, but some regional biological differences have been reported. In this study we used two molecular genetic techniques—protein electrophoresis of nuclear DNA loci, and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—to assess this species’ population genetic structure in the eastern (coastal waters off Gabon and Sierra Leone, Africa) and western (coastal waters off Florida, Caribbean Sea) Atlantic Ocean north of the equator. Genetic differentiation was observed between tarpon from Africa and tarpon from the western Atlantic Ocean. A unique allele and haplotype, significant differences in allozyme allele and mtDNA haplotype frequencies between the African and western Atlantic samples, and significant FST analyses suggest that levels of gene flow between tarpon from these two regions is low. Among the western Atlantic Ocean collections, genetic diversity values and allele and haplotype frequencies were similar. AMOVA analyses also showed a degree of genetic relatedness among most of the western Atlantic Ocean collections: however, some significant population structuring was detected in the allozyme data. A regional jackknifed FST analysis indicated the distinction of the Costa Rica population from the other western Atlantic populations and, in pairwise analyses, FST values tended to be higher (i.e., genetic relatedness was lower) when the Costa Rican sample was paired with any of the other western Atlantic samples. These data suggest that Costa Rican tarpon could be partially isolated from other western Atlantic tarpon populations. Ultimately, international cooperation will be essential in the management of this species in both the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean.

Nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive patients in Costa Rica.

A cross-sectional study was performed among seropositive individuals who sought HIV treatment at an outpatient clinic in San Jose, Costa Rica, to determine the prevalence, predictors, and reasons for nonadherence to antiretroviral. A structured, face-to-face interview was administered to 88 patients. The primary outcome of adherence was measured as taking 100% of medications within 3 days prior to interview. A number of risk factors, including demographic information, HIV knowledge, logistics of the regimen, and management skills were assessed. Statistical analyses included logistic regression. Eighty-five percent of patients took 100% of their medications in the last 3 days. Factors that were correlated with nonadherence included difficulty in finding transportation to the clinic (odds ratio [OR] = 6.3, p = 0.01), not laying pills out as a management skill (OR = 9.9, p = 0.01), and prescription instructions to take medication on an empty stomach (OR = 6.7, p = 0.03). HIV-positive patients in this Costa Rican sample were fairly adherent to their drug regimens. To increase adherence among non-adherent individuals, interventions that increase access in remote areas and help people manage their regimens may be beneficial.

Genome screening for linkage disequilibrium in a Costa Rican sample of patients with bipolar-I disorder: a follow-up study on chromosome 18.

Linkage disequilibrium (LD) methods offer great promise for mapping complex traits, but have thus far been applied sparingly. In this paper we describe an LD mapping study of severe bipolar disorder (BP-I) in the genetically isolated population of the Central Valley of Costa Rica. This study provides the first complete screen of a chromosome for a complex trait using LD mapping and presents the first application of a new LD mapping statistic (ancestral haplotype reconstruction (AHR)) that evaluates haplotype sharing among affected individuals. The results of this chromosome-wide analysis are instructive for genome-wide LD mapping in isolated populations. Furthermore, the analysis continues to support a possible BP-I locus on 18pter, suggested by previous analyses in this population. Evidence for a possible BP-I locus on 18q12.2 is also described.

Diffuse Political Support and Antisystem Political Behavior: A Comparative Analysis

concept of values. Of course it also is possible that response set is operating across the pro-worded items; if this were the case, reliability as determined by coefficient alpha could be high, even though many responses were invalid (in this instance, con sentiment misrepresented as pro sentiment). However, the format of the response options-to what extent does respondent feel one way or the other, pro or con-makes response set much less likely than other formats (e.g., agree-disagree). For assessing the potential usefulness of the indicator we do just rely on reliability (there is no infallible measure, since even test-retest reliability can be contaminated by true change), but look, additionally, at how the scale performs in relation to other variables. 4The urban Costa Rica sample was drawn from sample frame prepared by Professor G6mez, already used and refined in six national probability samples as well as several smaller studies. In the present investigation, in order to retain comparability with the urban sample of New York, only two of the four strata in the sample frame were used, the metropolitan area of San Jose and the urban areas of provincial capitals of Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia. Eliminated were the two rural strata. Each stratum was in turn stratified according to an index of socioeconomic status, based upon housing characteristics and ownership of electrical artifacts as reported in the 1973 national census. Primary sampling units This content downloaded from 157.55.39.221 on Sun, 06 Nov 2016 05:48:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ANTISYSTEM POLITICAL BEHAVIOR 251 can survey, conducted in Guadalajara during July and August 1979. This purposive sample, with total N of 169, was drawn from six middleclass sections of Guadalajara. Planned by Seligson and John A. Booth, the study was conducted with the institutional support of the University of Arizona Guadalajara Summer Program. In the Guadalajara survey ten-point response format was used in place of the seven-point format, and, because of space limitation, only items C through G were administered. The reliability analysis for the Urban Costa Rica and Guadalajara samples is also given in Table 2. The Political Support-Alienation scale shows satisfactory reliability in the Costa Rican sample and achieves an even higher level of reliability in the Mexican sample. These surveys also included the five Trust in Government items, administered according to the same format used in the National Election Studies carried out by the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan.5 For reliability analysis, we dichotomized them following the procedure of Miller (1974, p. 953), with the most negative response (see Table 1) scored as 1 and the other categories scored O. In the New York City general public survey, only subsample consisting of 372 respondents received the Trust in Government items. Among the 284 general public respondents could be scored on all items, Table 3 shows that the reliability coefficient is .70, while in the university sample it is even lower, reaching level of only.66. These are low, though unacceptable (according to customary practice in basic research), levels of reliability. Interestingly, respondents from academia appeared to have more trouble with these items than did the general public. From Table 3 one also sees that the Trust in Government items have similarly low, reliability in two of the Latin American samples. If we designate values less than .6 as unacceptably low reliability, the Costa Rican sample approaches this level. The Guadalajara sample shows somewhat higher reliability-but still in the .6-.7 range. Also, the blue-collar Mexican border-cities analyzed by Seligson (forthcoming) showed reliability coefficient in the .6-.7 range (.63). were then selected at random using the PPS method. Within each unit all dwellings were visited, and list of all residents eighteen years and over was prepared. The final selection of respondents was then drawn at random from these lists. I Since 1974 the SRC has made minor change in the wording of the last two items in the series. The smart item was revised by deleting who usually know what they are doing from the first part of the item, while the crooked item was revised by inserting the words a little before the first use of crooked and deleting crooked after not very many are. We have used the original format to retain compatability with the earlier SRC work as well as with some of our own studies. These changes do appear to have increased the reliability of the SRC data. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.221 on Sun, 06 Nov 2016 05:48:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

The Abundance and Diversity of the Herpetofaunas of Tropical Forest Litter

Quantitative and qualitative samples of amphibian and lizard faunas were taken from forest litter in Costa Rica and compared with similar samples collected in Borneo, the Philippines, and Panama. Animal abundance is about ten times greater in Costa Rican lowland wet forest than in Borneo. Radically different routes and rates of energy flow are postulated to account for the difference. In a series of upland (1010-1425 m) samples in the Philippines, the number of litter lizards and frogs increases with elevation. A single upland (1200 m) Costa Rican sample contains about three times as many animals per 100 m2 as two lowland sites. This increase with altitude correlates well with hypotheses that overall tropical forest productivity is greatest at intermediate elevations. Herpetofaunal densities are greater in wet areas compared to dry sites and flat terrain compared to slopes. These observations are linked to the greater variation and lesser total litter fall in dry sites and/or slopes. The number of species of amphibians and lizards regularly inhabiting the litter is similar in all wet lowland forests studied. Increasing elevation and decreasing rainfall correlate with faunas having fewer species. The former is seen as the result of the differential ability of lowland species to invade uplands, and the latter as a decrease in the kind and duration of frog-spawning sites. Reduced equitability with increasing elevation is principally due to the much greater proportional increase of the commonest species. In the evolution of American and Bornean-Philippine wet lowland faunas, frogs with direct development (Eleutherodactylus) have radiated in the former in the same fashion that skinks have in the latter. SEVERAL RECENT STUDIES have accumulated a large body of data on the density and composition of the reptile and amphibian faunas inhabiting tropical forest litter. Samples are available from undisturbed forest in the Philippines (Brown and Alcala 1961), Borneo (Lloyd et al. 1968), Panam'a (Heatwole and Sexton 1966; Sexton et al. 1964) and Costa Rica (this study). Analysis of the Bornean samples has raised basic ecological questions (Lloyd et ai. 1968), and a detailed comparison and analysis of all of the available data is now appropriate. These studies give an opportunity to make the first quantitative comparisons between Old and New World tropical vertebrate faunas. The techniques are uniform enough to make rough comparisons between numbers of species, distribution of animals among species, and animal densities. There are enough samples to compare: 1) Old and New World wet lowlands and uplands, 2) different altitudes within a single region, 3) different climates in the lowland Neotropics, and 4) different seasons and topography in the same Neotropical area. Most of the samples are drawn from relatively undisturbed forested areas where the faunas are assumed to have achieved some sort of equilibrium, at least with regard to number of species, animal density, and species-abundance relationships. These kinds of comparisons have not been made for any vertebrate group. The only geographically extensive quantitative comparisons of tropical forest faunas have been those of understory foliage insects by Janzen (1973a, b). Many of his samples were taken near the same sites as the Costa Rican herpetofaunal samples reported here.

Organizational Processes In The Growing Community: Strategies For Development

AbstractThe author develops a theoretical model that relates community organizational processes to community growth. The model suggests that organizational level and organizational dynamism in communities are related to community size, the level of urban services available, and the demand for such services by the inhabitants. The model is tested on a Costa Rican sample, substantiating the hypothesized relationships. The strategic and tactical implications of the model and the findings for community development efforts are discussed. The model is found useful, but a cautionary note is added for those considering practical applications.