Flight Costs Research Articles

Skeletal muscle and metabolic flexibility in response to changing energy demands in wild birds.

Phenotypically plastic responses of animals to adjust to environmental variation are pervasive. Reversible plasticity (i.e., phenotypic flexibility), where adult phenotypes can be reversibly altered according to prevailing environmental conditions, allow for better matching of phenotypes to the environment and can generate fitness benefits but may also be associated with costs that trade-off with capacity for flexibility. Here, we review the literature on avian metabolic and muscle plasticity in response to season, temperature, migration and experimental manipulation of flight costs, and employ an integrative approach to explore the phenotypic flexibility of metabolic rates and skeletal muscle in wild birds. Basal (minimum maintenance metabolic rate) and summit (maximum cold-induced metabolic rate) metabolic rates are flexible traits in birds, typically increasing with increasing energy demands. Because skeletal muscles are important for energy use at the organismal level, especially to maximum rates of energy use during exercise or shivering thermogenesis, we consider flexibility of skeletal muscle at the tissue and ultrastructural levels in response to variations in the thermal environment and in workloads due to flight exercise. We also examine two major muscle remodeling regulatory pathways: myostatin and insulin-like growth factor -1 (IGF-1). Changes in myostatin and IGF-1 pathways are sometimes, but not always, regulated in a manner consistent with metabolic rate and muscle mass flexibility in response to changing energy demands in wild birds, but few studies have examined such variation so additional study is needed to fully understand roles for these pathways in regulating metabolic flexibility in birds. Muscle ultrastrutural variation in terms of muscle fiber diameter and associated myonuclear domain (MND) in birds is plastic and highly responsive to thermal variation and increases in workload, however, only a few studies have examined ultrastructural flexibility in avian muscle. Additionally, the relationship between myostatin, IGF-1, and satellite cell (SC) proliferation as it relates to avian muscle flexibility has not been addressed in birds and represents a promising avenue for future study.

Thermal effects of plumage coloration

Plumage coloration can have substantial effects on a bird's energy budget. This is because different colours reflect and absorb light differently, affecting the heat loads acquired from solar radiation. We examine the thermal effects of feather coloration on solar heat gain and flight performance and discuss the potential role of plumage colour on a bird's energy budget. Early investigations of the effects of plumage colour on thermoregulation revealed complex interactions between environmental conditions and physical properties of the plumage that may have led to diverse behavioural and physiological adaptations of birds to their thermal environment. While darker feather surfaces absorb more light, and heat more, than light‐coloured surfaces under exposure to the sun, this relationship is not always straightforward when considering heat transfer to the skin. Heat transfer through plumage varies depending on multiple factors, such as feather density and transmission of light. For instance, higher transmissivity of light‐coloured plumage can increase heat loads reaching skin level, while conduction and convection transfer heat from the surface of dark feathers to the skin. Solar heating can affect the metabolic costs of maintaining a constant body temperature, and depending on environmental conditions, colours can have either a positive or negative effect on a bird's energy budget. More specifically, solar heating can be advantageous in the cold but may increase the energetic costs associated with thermoregulation when ambient temperature is high. More recent studies have further suggested that the thermal properties of feather coloration might reduce the energetic costs of flight. This is because surface heating can affect the ratio between lift and drag on a wing. As concluding remarks, we provide future directions for new lines of research that will aid in improving our understanding of the thermal effects of feather coloration on a bird's energy budget, which can potentially explain factors driving colour evolution and distribution patterns in birds.

Research on the Combination Optimization Method of Aircraft Climb Parameters Considering the Influence of Pollution Emissions

In order to find the optimum climb parameters for decreasing aircraft pollution emissions, we establish a calculation model of aircraft pollutant emissions to thoroughly examine the economy of aircraft operation and its impact on the environment, based on the International Civil Aviation Organization reference emission data and Boeing Method 2 which can calculate pollutant emissions in different flight phases by correcting the ICAO emission data. Firstly, we propose the concept of integrated flight cost considering the effect of emissions and establish its calculation model. Secondly, we establish the climb speed optimization models based on the traditional flight cost and integrated flight cost. Then, we analyze the effect of climb performance on the integrated flight cost. Next, we establish a combined optimization model of indicated airspeed and thrust using the genetic algorithm. The model simulation and result analysis are carried out using a wide-body aircraft. Finally, we analyze the effect of the optimization parameters and the sensitivity of the pollution index. The results show that the decrease in the flight speed and thrust effectively reduces the cost of pollutant emission during flight. The combination of (Vc, Tr) with the smallest integrated flight cost reduces the integrated flight cost by 1.28% and emission cost by 4.56%.

Accelerating animal energetics: high dive costs in a small seabird disrupt the dynamic body acceleration-energy expenditure relationship.

Accelerometry has been widely used to estimate energy expenditure in a broad array of terrestrial and aquatic species. However, a recent reappraisal of the method showed that relationships between dynamic body acceleration (DBA) and energy expenditure weaken as the proportion of non-mechanical costs increases. Aquatic air breathing species often exemplify this pattern, as buoyancy, thermoregulation and other physiological mechanisms disproportionately affect oxygen consumption during dives. Combining biologging with the doubly labelled water method, we simultaneously recorded daily energy expenditure (DEE) and triaxial acceleration in one of the world's smallest wing-propelled breath-hold divers, the dovekie (Alle alle). These data were used to estimate the activity-specific costs of flying and diving and to test whether overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA) is a reliable predictor of DEE in this abundant seabird. Average DEE for chick-rearing dovekies was 604±119kJday-1 across both sampling years. Despite recording lower stroke frequencies for diving than for flying (in line with allometric predictions for auks), dive costs were estimated to surpass flight costs in our sample of birds (flying: 7.24× basal metabolic rate, BMR; diving: 9.37× BMR). As expected, ODBA was not an effective predictor of DEE in this species. However, accelerometer-derived time budgets did accurately estimate DEE in dovekies. This work represents an empirical example of how the apparent energetic costs of buoyancy and thermoregulation limit the effectiveness of ODBA as the sole predictor of overall energy expenditure in small shallow-diving endotherms.

Empirical Evidence for Energy Efficiency Using Intermittent Gliding Flight in Northern Bald Ibises

Birds face exceptionally high energy demands during their flight. One visible feature of some species is alternating between flapping and gliding, which should allow them to save energy. To date, there is no empirical evidence of an energetic benefit to this. To understand the physiology behind the strategy, we equipped hand-raised Northern Bald Ibises (Geronticus eremita) with data loggers during human-guided migration. We monitored the position of the birds, wingbeats, overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA), and heart rates as a proxy for energy expenditure. The energy expenditure was significantly affected by the length of flapping and gliding bouts. A pronounced decrease in heart rate was measured after already 1 s of gliding. Additionally, the heart rate at flapping bouts up to 30 s increased steadily but stabilized thereafter. The gilding proportion during intermittent flight affected the energy saving compared to continuous flapping. At a gliding proportion of about 20%, we measured a maximum of 11% saving based on heart rate measurement. At higher gliding proportions, the additional energy saving was negligible. Furthermore, as during flight, not all energy is used for mechanical work, we found a greater decrease rate of ODBA at different gliding proportions compared to heart rate. Nevertheless, the combination of the two methods is essential to determine birds’ movement and energy expenditure. This study provides empirical evidence that intermittent flight is energetically beneficial and can reduce the high costs of flights.

DEVELOPMENT TREND OF LAGE AIRCRAFT ENGINE IN THE FUTURE

With the rapid development of the world economy and technology, engine technology has made a series of progress in the aerospace field. However, the problems of environmental pollution and energy crisis are becoming more and more serious. The development of advanced aircraft engines can contribute to thrust-to-weight ratio, fuel consumption rate, lifetime cost, pollutant emission, safety and reliability, etc., reducing energy consumption and reducing flight costs. This paper briefly introduces the types and performance of modern advanced aero-engines, summarizes their practical applications in various aviation fields, and looks forward to the development direction of future aircraft engines.

Motion Planning of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Based on Rapid-exploration Random Tree Algorithm

In the study of route planning problems in complex environments, in order to reduce the flight cost of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), it is necessary to achieve a better balance between planning time and path quality. This paper utilizes the Rapid-exploration Random Tree (RRT) algorithm for motion planning of a fixed-wing UAV and a multi-rotor UAV (i.e., a quad-rotor UAV), and gives the origin and destination locations on a 3-D map. By following aerodynamic constraints such as maximum roll angle, flight path angle, and airspeed, a collision-free and flight-friendly path is found through simulation. In addition, this paper employs a path smoothing algorithm to simplify the 3-D Dubins path and generates the shortest trajectory. The simulation results show that the RRT and the optimization method have faster convergence speed and shorter search time, reduce redundant planning points, shorten the planning track, and improve the track planning efficiency.

An optimization-based selection approach of landing sites for swarm unmanned aerial vehicles in unknown environments

Autonomous selection of landing sites is an important capability of a mission when unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) face technical difficulties or adverse weather, especially in unknown environments. In order to build a better decision-making system for swarm UAVs landing, besides terrain safety, the global flight cost among individuals should be also considered during descent. However, the existing methods cannot solve these problems elegantly due to terrain uncertainty and optimization complexity. In this paper, we present an optimization method to tackle this issue based on point cloud integrating the coarse-to-fine manner and swarm intelligence model. Specifically, our method starts with a point cloud preprocessing module for sparse elevation estimation and robust path planning. In the coarse stage, a novel cost map is constructed by extracting only low-level features from the elevation map. Based on the optimum results of the coarse selection, the final landing sites are automatically generated and finely evaluated in terms of multiple 3D terrain factors. Finally, the landing model of swarm-UAVs is treated as an unbalanced assignment problem, which minimizes flight costs by incorporating terrain safety, fuel consumption, and path planning. Experimental evaluations on three different real-world scenario datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of our method in both normal operations and emergency situations.

The hawkmoth wingbeat is not at resonance.

Flying insects have elastic materials within their exoskeletons that could reduce the energetic cost of flight if their wingbeat frequency is matched to a mechanical resonance frequency. Flapping at resonance may be essential across flying insects because of the power demands of small-scale flapping flight. However, building up large-amplitude resonant wingbeats over many wingstrokes may be detrimental for control if the total mechanical energy in the spring-wing system exceeds the per-cycle work capacity of the flight musculature. While the mechanics of the insect flight apparatus can behave as a resonant system, the question of whether insects flap their wings at their resonant frequency remains unanswered. Using previous measurements of body stiffness in the hawkmoth, Manduca sexta, we develop a mechanical model of spring-wing resonance with aerodynamic damping and characterize the hawkmoth's resonant frequency. We find that the hawkmoth's wingbeat frequency is approximately 80% above resonance and remains so when accounting for uncertainty in model parameters. In this regime, hawkmoths may still benefit from elastic energy exchange while enabling control of aerodynamic forces via frequency modulation. We conclude that, while insects use resonant mechanics, tuning wingbeats to a simple resonance peak is not a necessary feature for all centimetre-scale flapping flyers.

Multi-Rotor UAV-Borne PolInSAR Data Processing and Preliminary Analysis of Height Inversion in Urban Area

Polarimetric Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolInSAR) has many useful applications, especially in forest areas. With the development of SAR miniaturization technology, researchers can install PolInSAR on small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), which can reduce flight costs. Limited by size and power, UAV-borne SAR usually works in a high-frequency band, which restricts its application to such things as vegetation height inversion. While on the other hand, the high resolution acquired under a short wavelength promises its application in urban areas. However, there are fewer studies on the application of PolInSAR in urban areas compared with that in forest areas. In this paper, we propose a processing method for a Ku-band multi-rotor-UAV-borne PolInSAR and provide a preliminary analysis of height inversion results on its data from the Fudan campus in Shanghai. We obtain the digital surface model (DSM) of different polarization modes and the DSM of polarimetric interferometry optimal decomposition in this area, whose RMSE is 2.88 m. On this basis, the elevation inversion results of targets such as buildings, lampposts, and trees are compared and analyzed. We preliminarily explore and analyze the reasons for the different results of different targets. To this end, we propose a mathematical derivation of the relationship between the interferometric phase between PolInSAR and InSAR of Pauli decomposition. We also perform a simulation to analyze the relationship between the phase center height of Pauli decomposition and PolInSAR under different cases. It provides a reference for the application of small UAV-borne PolInSAR in urban areas.

Trajectory Clustering for Air Traffic Categorisation

Availability of different types of data and advances in data-driven techniques open the path to more detailed analyses of various phenomena. Here, we examine the insights that can be gained through the analysis of historical flight trajectories, using data mining techniques. The goal is to learn about usual (or nominal) choices airlines make in terms of routing, and their relation with aircraft types and operational flight costs. The clustering is applied to intra-European trajectories during one entire summer season, and a statistical test of independence is used to evaluate the relations between the variables of interest. Even though about half of all flights are less than 1000 km long, and mostly operated by one airline, along one trajectory, the analysis shows that, for longer flights, there exists a clear relation between the trajectory clusters and the operating airlines (in about 49% of city pairs) and/or the aircraft types (30%), and/or the flight costs (45%).

Physical constraints on thermoregulation and flight drive morphological evolution in bats

Body size and shape fundamentally determine organismal energy requirements by modulating heat and mass exchange with the environment and the costs of locomotion, thermoregulation, and maintenance. Ecologists have long used the physical linkage between morphology and energy balance to explain why the body size and shape of many organisms vary across climatic gradients, e.g., why larger endotherms are more common in colder regions. However, few modeling exercises have aimed at investigating this link from first principles. Body size evolution in bats contrasts with the patterns observed in other endotherms, probably because physical constraints on flight limit morphological adaptations. Here, we develop a biophysical model based on heat transfer and aerodynamic principles to investigate energy constraints on morphological evolution in bats. Our biophysical model predicts that the energy costs of thermoregulation and flight, respectively, impose upper and lower limits on the relationship of wing surface area to body mass (S-MR), giving rise to an optimal S-MR at which both energy costs are minimized. A comparative analysis of 278 species of bats supports the model’s prediction that S-MR evolves toward an optimal shape and that the strength of selection is higher among species experiencing greater energy demands for thermoregulation in cold climates. Our study suggests that energy costs modulate the mode of morphological evolution in bats—hence shedding light on a long-standing debate over bats’ conformity to ecogeographical patterns observed in other mammals—and offers a procedure for investigating complex macroecological patterns from first principles.

Multi-Objective Hidden Genes Genetic Algorithm for Multigravity-Assist Trajectory Optimization

In multigravity-assist trajectory optimization, the size of the design space is a variable itself. The objective functions are usually replete with local minima. This paper presents a multi-objective hidden genes genetic algorithm (MOHGGA) for trajectory optimization. The length of the chromosome is selected large enough to enable modeling a given maximum number of swing-bys and maximum number of deep space maneuvers (DSMs). Binary tags are appended to those genes that control the swing-bys and DSMs. These binary tags are used to remove/add swing-bys and DSMs to a trajectory solution, and hence enable optimization among solutions of different sizes (different topologies). The MOHGGA generates Pareto fronts that have solutions of, in general, different number of swing-bys, swing-by planets, launch and arrival dates, and number of DSMs. Two objectives are considered in this paper: the total mission cost and total time of flight. An elitist nondominated sorting genetic algorithm is used. Local optimization is conducted on one objective function, holding the other objective function constant, to further improve the resulting Pareto front. Numerical results of four benchmark test cases for missions to Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Mercury are presented. The results demonstrate the capability of MOHGGA in searching for optimal trajectory topologies while optimizing two objectives.

Multi-modal locomotor costs favor smaller males in a sexually dimorphic leaf-mimicking insect

BackgroundIn most arthropods, adult females are larger than males, and male competition is a race to quickly locate and mate with scattered females (scramble competition polygyny). Variation in body size among males may confer advantages that depend on context. Smaller males may be favored due to more efficient locomotion leading to higher mobility during mate searching. Alternatively, larger males may benefit from increased speed and higher survivorship. While the relationship between male body size and mobility has been investigated in several systems, how different aspects of male body morphology specifically affect their locomotor performance in different contexts is often unclear.ResultsUsing a combination of empirical measures of flight performance and modelling of body aerodynamics, we show that large body size impairs flight performance in male leaf insects (Phyllium philippinicum), a species where relatively small and skinny males fly through the canopy in search of large sedentary females. Smaller males were more agile in the air and ascended more rapidly during flight. Our models further predicted that variation in body shape would affect body lift and drag but suggested that flight costs may not explain the evolution of strong sexual dimorphism in body shape in this species. Finally, empirical measurements of substrate adhesion and subsequent modelling of landing impact forces suggested that smaller males had a lower risk of detaching from the substrates on which they walk and land.ConclusionsBy showing that male body size impairs their flight and substrate adhesion performance, we provide support to the hypothesis that smaller scrambling males benefit from an increased locomotor performance and shed light on the evolution of sexual dimorphism in scramble competition mating systems.

Metabolic cost of flight and aerobic efficiency in the rose chafer, Protaetia cuprea (Cetoniinae).

Rose chafer beetles (Protetia cuprea) are pollinators as well as agricultural pests, flying between flowers and trees while foraging for pollen and fruits. Calculating the energy they expend on flying during foraging activity faces the challenge of measuring the metabolic rate (MR) of free-flying insects in an open space. We overcame this challenge by using the bolus injection of 13 C Na-bicarbonate technique to measure their metabolic energy expenditure while flying in a large flight arena. Concurrently, we tracked the insects with high-speed cameras to extract their flight trajectory, from which we calculated the mechanical power invested in flying for each flight bout. We found that the chemical (metabolic) energy input converted to mechanical flight energy output at a mean efficiency of 10.4%±5.2%, with a trend of increased efficiency in larger conspecifics (efficiency scaled with body mass to the power of 1.4). The transition in the summer from a diet of pollen to that of fruits may affect the energy budget available for foraging. Starved P. cuprea, feeding on apples ad libitum, increased their body mass by an average of 6% in 2h. According to our calculations, such a meal can power a 630-m flight (assuming a carbohydrate assimilation efficiency of 90%). Pollen, with a low water and carbohydrate content but rich in proteins and lipids, has a higher caloric content and should assimilate differently when converting food to flight fuel. The high cost of aerial locomotion is inherent to the foraging behavior of rose chafers, explaining their short flight bouts followed by prolonged feeding activity.

Operational Costs of Unmanned Aircraft System for Applying Pesticides and Fertilizers

The calculation of aircraft cost is stated necessary to assess the economic feasibility of their operation, as well as in agriculture, the possibility of acquiring new ones, and to justify air transportation tariffs. (Research purpose) The research purpose is to substantiate the methodology and calculate the prime cost of using BAS-137 VIM unmanned aerial system for the application of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals. (Materials and methods) When developing the methodology for calculating the prime cost of using an unmanned aerial system for applying pesticides and fertilizers, the Guidelines for determining the cost of domestic and international flights for Russian airlines were used. (Results and discussion) We have obtained the main dependences of the prime cost of using BAS-137 VIM for the introduction of working fluids: on the application rate, the field rut length, the distance of approach to the refueling place, and the operating flight speed. (Conclusions) The authors developed a methodology for calculating the prime cost of using an unmanned aerial system for applying pesticides and fertilizers, including direct and indirect operating costs. It was found out that at the working fluid application rates of 5-100 liters per hectare, the changes in the cost of using BAS-137 VIM are within the range from 280.9 to 1315.5 rubles per hectare. At an application rate of 10 liters per hectare within the rut length of 0.3-2.0 kilometers, the application prime cost is 307.1-529.5 rubles per hectare. It was obtained that at the application rates of 5-20 liters per hectare and the rut length of 0.6-1.0 kilometers, the prime cost will be the lowest, within the range of 264-369 rubles per hectare at an operating flight speed of 60 kilometers per hour and within the range of 482-587 rubles per hectare at a flying speed of 30 kilometers per hour. It was shown that with a twofold increase in BAS-137 VIM operating speed, the prime cost decreases by 1.2-1.5 times.

The oxidative cost of helping and its minimization in a cooperative breeder

Abstract Cooperative actions are beneficial to the group, but presumably costly to the individual co-operators. In cooperatively breeding species, helping to raise young is thought to involve important energetic costs, which could lead to elevated exposure to reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative stress. However, identifying such costs can be difficult if individuals adjust their investment in helping in relation to environmental conditions or their own physiological condition. Experimental approaches are therefore required to quantify the costs of helping but, to date, these have been infrequent. Here, we combined correlational and experimental data to investigate the oxidative cost of helping-at-the-nest and how this affects helping decisions in wild sociable weavers Philetairus socius, a colonial cooperatively breeding bird. At the correlational level, we found that the probability of helping was influenced by the interaction of an individual’s oxidative state and age: compared to younger birds, older individuals were more likely to help when they had higher oxidative damage, and the opposite trend was found for younger individuals. After experimentally increasing the energetic cost of flight, manipulated helpers in breeding colonies decreased nestling feeding rates and incurred an increase in oxidative damage, which was not present in manipulated helpers in non-breeding colonies. This indicates that individuals decreased their helping behavior to minimize the associated costs. These results suggest that oxidative stress can influence helping decisions and underlie a trade-off between cooperation and self-maintenance, which is central to understanding when helping might take place in this and other species.

FC-RRT*: An Improved Path Planning Algorithm for UAV in 3D Complex Environment

In complex environments, path planning is the key for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to perform military missions autonomously. This paper proposes a novel algorithm called flight cost-based Rapidly-exploring Random Tree star (FC-RRT*) extending the standard Rapidly-exploring Random Tree star (RRT*) to deal with the safety requirements and flight constraints of UAVs in a complex 3D environment. First, a flight cost function that includes threat strength and path length was designed to comprehensively evaluate the connection between two path nodes. Second, in order to solve the UAV path planning problem from the front-end, the flight cost function and flight constraints were used to inspire the expansion of new nodes. Third, the designed cost function was used to guide the update of the parent node to allow the algorithm to consider both the threat and the length of the path when generating the path. The simulation and comparison results show that FC-RRT* effectively overcomes the shortcomings of standard RRT*. FC-RRT* is able to plan an optimal path that significantly improves path safety as well as maintains has the shortest distance while satisfying flight constraints in the complex environment. This paper has application value in UAV 3D global path planning.

Possible link between brain size and flight mode in birds: Does soaring ease the energetic limitation of the brain?

Elucidating determinants of interspecies variation in brain size has been a long-standing challenge in cognitive and evolutionary ecology. As the brain is an energetically expensive organ, energetic tradeoffs among organs are considered to play a key role in brain size evolution. This study examined the tradeoff between the brain and locomotion in birds by testing the relationship between brain size, flight modes with different energetic costs (flapping and soaring), and migratory behavior, using published data on the whole-brain mass of 2242 species. According to comparative analyses considering phylogeny and body mass, soarers, who can gain kinetic energy from wind shear or thermals and consequently save flight costs, have larger brains than flappers among migratory birds. Meanwhile, the brain size difference was not consistent in residents, and the size variation appeared much larger than that in migrants. In addition, the brain size of migratory birds was smaller than that of resident birds among flappers, whereas this property was not significant in soarers. Although further research is needed to draw a definitive conclusion, these findings provide further support for the energetic tradeoff of the brain with flight and migratory movements in birds and advance the idea that a locomotion mode with lower energetic cost could be a driver of encephalization during the evolution of the brain.

Updated Review of the Pacific Asynchronous Telehealth System's Impact on Military Pediatric Teleconsultations.

Introduction: The Pacific Asynchronous TeleHealth (PATH) system is an asynchronous provider-to-provider teleconsultation platform utilized by military medical facilities throughout the Western Pacific Region. This study focused on PATH utilization for pediatric cases and its impact on patient transfers and cost avoidance. Methods: This retrospective analysis reviewed PATH cases from March 2017 to February 2020 for patients aged 0-17 years. We reviewed the referring users' responses to survey questions related to the impact of PATH consultation on patient travel for in-person subspecialty care and the need for local referral. Data for cost avoidance were estimated using per diem rates and airline flight costs for Fiscal Year 2020. Results: A total of 2,448 pediatric consultations were submitted from 29 military medical facilities. Pediatric Pulmonology (n = 557, 24.5%), Pediatric Cardiology (n = 446, 19.6%), and Pediatric Neurology (n = 236, 10.37%) had the highest percentage of pediatric teleconsults. Approximately 42% of referring users completed the survey questions. Among survey respondents, 710 (69.4%) indicated that unnecessary patient transfers were prevented, equating to a cost savings of ∼$3.3 million. Conclusions: We observed robust utilization of the PATH system by pediatric providers in the Military Health System that ultimately resulted in substantial cost avoidance. This asynchronous telemedicine platform is a vital asset in locations with limited access or travel restriction to medical specialists, such as during pandemics.