Cost Of Carbon Capture Research Articles

Robust real-time optimization and parameter estimation of post-combustion CO2 capture under economic uncertainty

The operational cost of post-combustion carbon capture remains the principal factor impeding its uptake, thus real-time optimization has been proposed for economic operation. This requires that uncertainties be estimated, subjecting its solutions to estimation error. Herein, we propose uncertainty estimation and real-time optimization for post-combustion carbon capture plants. Model parameters are estimated using noisy measurements to address model uncertainty; accordingly, we deploy a low-variance scheme to address noise propagation. Our approach is implemented in a pilot-scale carbon capture plant through uncertain flue gas compositions and thermodynamic activities. The proposed method results in operating points closer to the true optima, with up to 25% improvement in economics compared to alternative operational approaches. Moreover, a robust real-time optimization strategy is proposed for cases in which model parameters and economic factors are simultaneously uncertain. The robust update strategy is deployed jointly with the low-variance estimation scheme to quantify the uncertainty in each model parameter, resulting in economic improvements and a notable reduction (80%) in the set point variability over the standard update approach. Through the schemes proposed, the carbon capture plant was able to operate at set points with high capture rates, low energy consumption, and low cost. This suggests that the proposed approach is suitable for the economic optimization of other energy and carbon capture systems.

Dynamic optimization of carbon capture technology deployment targeting carbon neutrality, cost efficiency and water stress: Evidence from China's electric power sector

The potential of carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) has been widely discussed worldwide, while the dynamic changing process, lock-in risk and water resource constraints towards carbon neutrality target are not fully considered in the previous studies. This study developed a comprehensive approach to optimize carbon mitigation potential, total capital expenditure and water resource stress for China's coal-fired power plants (CFPPs) with CCUS retrofitting in a dynamic environment. We found that the annual capture scale will start to increase significantly until 2030 and reach 2.4 billion tons CO2 in 2050. The newly-added capture scale of first-generation technology will decline gradually after 2030 due to the breakthrough in second-generation technology. Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu and Guangdong have the greatest potential for implementing CCUS projects, and the least in Hainan, Sichuan and Qinghai. The annual capture cost roughly presents an "inverted U" shape with the peaking (14.70 billion CNY) occurring in 2035, while the annual R&D investment can be observed a moderate "N" shape with the peaking (11.24 billion CNY) occurring in 2030. The annual non-corporate expenditures (subsidy) will picture a significant "inverted U" type trend, peaking at 63.71 billion CNY in 2044 as a result of the risk factors such as CCUS facility investment and additional storage cost caused by uncertain geological conditions. In addition, the annual water withdrawal and consumption of capture process will increase from 0.09 and 0.06 billion m3 respectively in 2021 to 9.12 and 6.22 billion m3 respectively in 2050, while CO2-EWR (Enhanced water recovery) process will make CCUS technology supply extra water resource since 2035, reaching 27.05 billion m3 in 2050. Meanwhile, in terms of first- and second-generation capture technology, the unit water withdrawal will drop 35.04% and 36.71%, respectively, while the unit water consumption will drop 66.89% and 74.12%, respectively during 2021–2050. Overall, although CCUS will not intensify water resource stress in the future, the appropriate relaxation ratio of water quota is essential at the initial stage.

Simultaneous design and operational optimization for flexible carbon capture process using ionic liquids

Carbon capture and storage is an effective way to abate CO2 emissions during the transition to zero-carbon power generation technologies. As renewable electricity sources such as wind and solar photovoltaics become more prevalent, conventional power generation systems are increasingly required to operate at highly variable rates in order to balance intermittent renewable power supply. As a result, post-combustion carbon capture systems integrated with fossil fuel power plants must also operate at variable load. In addition, the solvent regeneration and CO2 compression in capture plants requires substantial amounts of energy and such flexible operation can present an opportunity for operators to take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices, potentially offsetting the cost of carbon capture. This can be achieved through, among others, variable capture rates and utilization of solvent storage. In this paper, we consider a carbon capture system using ionic liquids as a chemical absorption solvent. We study the optimal flexible operation of this system when connected to a natural gas combined cycle power plant under high variable renewable power generation rates. The results show significant cost savings relative to the case of inflexible capture system operation.

Nonacid Carbon Materials as Catalysts for Monoethanolamine Energy-Efficient Regeneration.

In the CO2 capture process, solid acid catalysts have been widely adopted to decrease energy consumption in the amine regeneration process owing to abundant acid sites. However, acid sites unavoidably degenerate in the basic amine solution. To address the challenge, nonacid carbon materials including carbon molecular sieves, porous carbon, carbon nanotubes, and graphene are first proposed to catalyze amine regeneration. It is found that carbon materials can significantly increase the CO2 desorption amount by 47.1-72.3% and reduce energy consumption by 32-42%. In 20 stability experiments, CO2 loading was stable with the max difference value of 0.01 mol CO2/mol monoethanolamine (MEA), and no obvious increase in the relative heat duty (the maximum difference is 4%) occurred. The stability of carbon materials is superior to excellent solid acid catalysts, and the desorption performance is comparable. According to the results of theoretical calculation and experimental characterization, the electron-transfer mechanism of nonacid carbon materials is proposed, which is not only beneficial for MEA regeneration but also the probable reason for the stable catalytic activity. Owing to the excellent catalytic performance of carbon nanotube (CNT) in the HCO3- decomposition, nonacid carbon materials are quite promising to enhance the desorption performance of novel blend amines, which will further reduce the cost of carbon capture in the industry. This study provides a new strategy to develop stable catalysts used for amine energy-efficient regeneration.

Demonstration of direct ocean carbon capture using encapsulated solvents

Direct ocean carbon capture (DOC) is an emerging form of negative emissions technology that requires expedited characterization and comparison against more well-established forms of carbon capture. Using microencapsulated solvents for DOC affords large membrane surface areas for carbon dioxide (CO2) in the ocean water to flux across a gas-permeable membrane, and reversible regeneration of the contained solution. The feasibility of using a packed bed of Na2CO3 capsules to extract CO2 from seawater is assessed here through lab-scale experimentation, one-dimensional modeling, and techno-economic assessment (TEA). The experimental flux measurements match the flux predictions of the 1D model, validating the model. Parametric studies with our capsule bed model suggest that for a balance between pressure drop and breakthrough time the optimal capsule diameter is between 400-600μm, the optimal bed porosity is between 0.5-0.7, and the optimal seawater velocity through the bed is 0.10-0.15 m/s. The TEA estimates that the carbon capture cost of a 1 MTonne/year greenfield system using Na2CO3 capsules would be exorbitant: $8,977.14 per tonne of CO2. This work demonstrates the potential of using microencapsulated solvents for direct ocean carbon capture and illustrates a need for further research to reduce system costs.

Demonstration of direct ocean carbon capture using hollow fiber membrane contactors

The focus of membrane carbon capture to date has been primarily on point source capture, such as power plants and industrial capture. However, membrane technology can also play a role in negative emissions technology, such as direct air capture and direct ocean capture. Direct ocean capture has a few potential advantages over direct air capture, such as avoiding land use and coupling with offshore wind and offshore storage. The use and feasibility of hollow fiber membrane contactors (HFMCs) for direct ocean carbon capture with benign aqueous basic carbon dioxide solvents is assessed here through a multifaceted approach. A 1D HFMC model incorporates fluid dynamics and the chemical kinetics of both ocean water and aqueous sodium hydroxide solvent in order to simulate CO2 flux behavior in two flow configurations. Lab scale experiments of this system then guide a model refinement and validation process until experimental behaviors are predicted through computation. A preliminary technoeconomic assessment then uses computational and experimental results to estimate the carbon capture cost when the system is scaled to remove 0.98 Mtonnes CO2/year. Computational results suggest that higher seawater flow rates and temperatures relative to the sodium hydroxide solvent improve CO2 flux. The technoeconomic assessment suggests that HFMCs may only be cost-competitive if seawater pH is decreased at the membrane interface, thereby increasing the local concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide. These findings indicate that local pH swing on the seawater side will be necessary to feasibly remove carbon dioxide from seawater using HFMCs.

Scheduling Optimization of IEHS with Uncertainty of Wind Power and Operation Mode of CCP

With the gradual depletion of fossil energy sources and the improvement in environmental protection attention, efficient use of energy and reduction in carbon emissions have become urgent issues. The integrated electricity and heating energy system (IEHS) is a significant solution to reduce the proportion of fossil fuel and carbon emissions. In this paper, a stochastic optimization model of the IEHS considering the uncertainty of wind power (WP) output and carbon capture power plants (CCPs) is proposed. The WP output in the IEHS is represented by stochastic scenarios, and the scenarios are reduced by fast scenario reduction to obtain typical scenarios. Then, the conventional thermal power plants are modified with CCPs, and the CCPs are equipped with flue gas bypass systems and solution storage to form the integrated and flexible operation mode of CCPs. Furthermore, based on the different load demand responses (DRs) in the IEHS, the optimization model of the IEHS with a CCP is constructed. Finally, the results show that with the proposed optimization model and shunt-type CCP, the integrated operation approach allows for a better reduction in carbon capture costs and carbon emissions.

Integrated techno-economic and life cycle assessment of a novel algae-based coating for direct air carbon capture and sequestration

Direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS) systems are expected to play an important role in fighting global warming. While existing DACCS technologies have demonstrated CO2 removal rates at or below the kiloton scale, high capital costs and significant energy demands represent hurdles in achieving large scale deployment. This study evaluates a novel biomimetic coating primarily consisting of a hydrogel seeded with microalgae biomass printed on a polyethylene substrate. The coating has been developed to exploit the high photosynthetic rates of microalgae to fix atmospheric CO2 into cellulose using incident solar energy. The carbon embodied in the cellulose material is converted to biochar through pyrolysis to ensure durable carbon sequestration without the need for underground storage. The proposed system offers many advantages including modularity and scalability, the potential for high water retention rates, and long periods of operation with minimal maintenance and management. Three scenarios were evaluated using conservative, baseline, and optimistic assumptions to capture the true range in performance of the system. Results from the modeling work show a carbon removal efficiency ranging from 51% to 73% and carbon capture and sequestration costs of $702–$1585 per tonne CO2 sequestered. Furthermore, the modular design of the coated substrate system and utilization of solar energy supports the rapid upscaling necessary to meet mid-century carbon removal goals. Discussion focuses on the key performance drivers of the system and the challenges and feasibility of meeting target metrics to support economic and environmental sustainability.

Energy-effective and low-cost carbon capture from point-sources enabled by water-lean solvents

Aqueous amines, as the most mature carbon capture technology, are subject to high energy and cost penalties due to the large water content in their formulations. Emerging technologies are in demand to enable a transition to a low-carbon global economy. However, rigorous process modeling and techno-economic analyses are limited for emerging carbon capture technologies. Here, four CO2-Binding Organic Liquids (CO2BOLs), all water-lean solvents were presented as promising options towards energy-effective and low-cost carbon capture from point sources. Rigorous solvent property and process models were developed in Aspen Plus for a coal-fired power plant with CO2BOL-based carbon capture unit. Techno-economic analyses were conducted in 2018 US pricing basis. The results suggest that water-lean formulations can minimize water condensation and vaporization, leading to a 36% energy saving compared with aqueous amines. Indeed, these CO2BOLs can capture up to 97–99% CO2 from coal fired plant. The estimated carbon capture cost is about $40/tonne CO2 at 90–97% carbon capture rate, about 12–23% less expensive than the conventional aqueous amine technology. The comparison between these CO2BOLs showed that in addition to vapor liquid equilibrium and kinetics (key properties for aqueous solvents), viscosity, volatility, and hydrophobicity, also have strong impacts on the performance of water-lean solvents. The methods presented in this work can be used to evaluate other emerging carbon capture technologies, while the results linking costs and performance of carbon capture solvents with their properties. Further, this work identifies research directions and targets for further reductions in total costs of capture from either cost or energy perspectives for these leading water-lean solvents.

Coal-fired power plant CCUS project comprehensive benefit evaluation and forecasting model study

As an important means to reduce CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants, CCUS project has received more and more attention. In this paper, the comprehensive benefits of CCUS project in coal-fired power plants are defined as economic benefits, environmental benefits and energy benefits, and comprehensive evaluation and prediction analysis of CCUS project in coal-fired power plants are made from these three aspects. The goodness-of-fit of the constructed comprehensive evaluation model can reach 0.99, and the ratio of economic, environmental and energy benefits is about 5: 9: 1. Among them, the best scenario of policy influence, economic development and technological progress can promote CCUS project with benefits of 6.51%, 6.56% and 13.07% respectively. Through case analysis, it can be calculated that when the service life of CCUS project reaches 21.7 years, the investment cost can be recovered from the economic benefits. In the prediction model, the goodness of fit of the economic benefit prediction model is up to 0.95, in which the carbon capture cost of CCUS technology, operation and maintenance cost and carbon price fluctuation play a major role. The goodness of fit of the environmental benefit prediction model can reach 0.90, in which the carbon capture capacity of CCUS project and the world environmental situation are the main influencing factors, and the goodness of fit of the energy benefit prediction model can reach up to 0.95, which is mainly affected by the energy consumption level of CCUS project. The research results show that CCUS project of coal-fired power plants at home and abroad has a good development prospect and remarkable comprehensive benefits. This paper puts forward relevant policy suggestions that are beneficial to the development of CCUS project in coal-fired power plants, with a view to providing empirical evidence for the evaluation and decision-making of CCUS project in coal-fired power plants.

A novel cryogenic technology for low-cost carbon capture from NGCC power plants for climate change mitigation

To reduce the high cost and water consumption of carbon capture, we present a novel low-cost carbon capture technology (NLCCT). It includes the generation of a cold nitrogen refrigerant (CNR) using minimum energy. The flow rate and temperature (−102 °C to −175 °C) are controlled with a fairly high coefficient of performance, COP. NLCCT uses a novel technique and regenerative cooling and an efficiently structured pre-cooler and a final cooler. This effectively uses the least amount of the CNR to cool the entire flue gas 10 °C to 15 °C below the thermodynamic de-sublimation temperature of CO2. Thus, 99 % of the original CO2 mass fraction in the flue gas de-sublimates and is captured. Detailed thermodynamic modelling shows that NLCCT can capture 99 % of the CO2 from natural gas combined cycle power plants with energy of 631 MJ/tCO2 and water consumption of 574 L/tCO2, and hence with a cost of about $12/tCO2 excluding labor and maintenance. We study the impact of the processing parameters and discuss how to optimise the capture processes to reduce the energy and water consumption further, for the implementation of NLCCT for climate change mitigation at a low cost.

Renewable Power for Electrocatalytic Generation of Syngas: Tuning the Syngas Ratio by Manipulating the Active Sites and System Design

AbstractAchieving decarbonization through zero net CO2emissions requires commercially viable application of waste CO2, throughout the transition to renewable and low‐carbon energy sources. A promising approach is the electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR), which when powered with renewable electricity sources, provides a pathway for the conversion of intermittent renewable energy and waste CO2into value‐added chemicals and fuels. However, as CO2RR is accompanied by the competing hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) due to the presence of water, an opportunity is presented to generate a mixture of CO and H2, also known as synthesis gas or syngas – the building block of various oxy‐hydrocarbon products. The aim of this review is to analyze both Power‐to‐CO and Power‐to‐Syngas studies, in order to classify and discuss the active sites for both CO and H2generation through a new lens, providing insights into the structure‐activity correlations and facilitating the design of more active syngas electrocatalysts in the future. Through an evaluation of the economic viability of syngas generation, we determine that the carbon capture cost is a key parameter, with improvements in catalyst activity, catalyst impurity tolerance, and electrolyzer technology necessary for significant improvement in the economics of electrocatalytic syngas generation.

Feasibility of gasifying mixed plastic waste for hydrogen production and carbon capture and storage

Waste plastic gasification for hydrogen production combined with carbon capture and storage is one technology option to address the plastic waste challenge. Here, we conducted a techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment to assess this option. The minimum hydrogen selling price of a 2000 oven-dry metric ton/day mixed plastic waste plant with carbon capture and storage is US$2.26–2.94 kg−1 hydrogen, which can compete with fossil fuel hydrogen with carbon capture and storage (US$1.21–2.62 kg−1 hydrogen) and current electrolysis hydrogen (US$3.20–7.70 kg−1 hydrogen). An improvement analysis outlines the roadmap for reducing the average minimum hydrogen selling price from US$2.60 to US$1.46 kg−1 hydrogen, which can be further lowered to US$1.06 kg−1 hydrogen if carbon credits are close to the carbon capture and storage costs along with low feedstock cost. The life cycle assessment results show that hydrogen derived from mixed plastic waste has lower environmental impacts than single-stream plastics.

Multi-lateral horizontal well with dual-tubing system to improve CO2 storage security and reduce CCS cost

This paper proposes a multi-lateral horizontal well with a dual-tubing (MLHW-DT) system to improve CO2 storage security and reduce the cost of carbon capture and storage (CCS) at a saline aquifer. In CCS, the production and re-injection of brine are efficient methods of relieving overpressure and improving the CO2 storage security simultaneously. In our previous study, a horizontal well with a dual-tubing (HW-DT) system operating on an onshore platform reduced CCS cost. In this study, the proposed MLHW-DT system is designed to implement the concept of the re-injection of produced brine to improve CO2 storage security while supplementing the shortcomings of the conventional brine production system by reducing CCS cost. When we vary the vertical-horizontal permeability ratio and dip angle of a saline aquifer, the CO2 storage security of the MLHW-DT system is improved compared with that of the overall HW-DT system because the re-injected brine induces the CO2 plume migration in the lateral direction. Furthermore, the CCS cost of the MLHW-DT system is reduced by 69.4% compared with that of the conventional brine production system if the MLHW is operated on an onshore platform. Based on these results, the MLHW-DT is a safe and economical operation system for a CCS project.

Simulation of a novel hybrid membrane-cryogenic process for post-combustion carbon capture

The global warming effect caused by CO2 emissions has a significant impact on human activities. Membrane technology has been regarded as a potential promising separation technology due to its low energy-consumption and low carbon footprint. In recent decades, numerous researches on CO2 selective membranes have been reported for carbon capture. The emergence of N2 selective membranes with “reversed N2/CO2 selectivity” property provides a novel perspective for carbon capture process with high efficiency and low energy consumption. However, there is still a gap in the study of N2 selective membranes in hybrid carbon capture process. In present work, a novel hybrid N2 selective membrane-cryogenic process was designed for post-combustion carbon capture. The result indicated that N2 selective membrane-cryogenic hybrid process had an advantage of low membrane area demand and capture cost. The carbon capture cost and energy consumption of the optimization case were $28.17/tCO2 and 1.46 GJ/tCO2, respectively. And it was also found that developing N2 selective membranes with high N2/CO2 selectivity was more promising than that with high N2 permeance in hybrid membrane-cryogenic carbon capture process.

The impact of policies on profit-maximizing rates of reliance on carbon capture for storage versus cleaner production

Based on techno-economic analysis, previous studies compare the short and long-term average cost of carbon capture and storage (CCS) with cleaner production technologies such as renewable energy (RE) generation. This study proposes scenarios where power generators choose to invest in CCS, RE, or both based on profit-maximization goals in the presence of policy instruments such as carbon tax and subsidies. We characterize profit-maximizing rates of reliance on CCS and RE and examine the impact of policies on a power generator’s optimal choice. The model, implemented on data obtained from 53 electric power companies, suggests that electric generators could adopt both CCS and RE profitably in the presence of policy incentives. Simulation results suggest that a one percent increase in carbon tax is associated with a 0.45–0.46 % increase in the use of CCS, whereas a one percent increase in CCS subsidy is associated with a 0.28 % increase in the use of CCS.

Cooperative Operation Model of Wind Turbine and Carbon Capture Power Plant Considering Benefit Distribution

Increasing systematic carbon sinks and clean energy generation proportion are the main ways to reduce the carbon emission of power system. In order to promote wind power accommodation and reduce system carbon emissions, a cooperative operation model of wind turbine and carbon capture power plant (CCPP) is constructed. Then, the model is equivalently transformed into two sub-problems. One is the operation optimization sub-problem of cooperative alliance with the goal of maximizing the alliance benefit. The other is the benefit distribution sub-problem with the goal of fair distributing cooperative benefit. To protect participants’ privacy, the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) is used to realize the distributed solution of the two sub-problems. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed model is verified by an example, and the sensitivity analysis of the alliance benefit and system carbon emission is carried out with carbon price and carbon capture cost as the sensitivity factors. The example results show that: (1) By providing up and down regulation services to wind turbines, CCPP can obtain ancillary service income and help to reduce the declaration deviation of wind turbines, which can realize multi-win-win situation. (2) Carbon price affects both thermal power units and carbon capture equipment. So, compared with carbon costs, the carbon emissions and the alliance benefit are both more sensitive to carbon price. The model of the paper is constructed under the deviation punishment mechanism, and subsequent research can be expanded in combination with a more detailed imbalance settlement mechanism.

Full‐scale simulation of a nearly depleted gas field in South Africa for carbon utilisation and storage

AbstractEnhanced gas recovery (EGR) is a recognised CO2 utilisation technique that can reduce the cost of carbon storage and improve its economic feasibility. Although there are many studies on the potential of depleted gas fields for CO2 storage, there has not been a comprehensive full‐scale study that can analyse different aspects of carbon utilisation together with the potential of storage, from reservoir characterisation to modelling and economic evaluation. The aim of this study is to develop a benchmark for assessing the technical and economic feasibility of carbon utilisation and storage in abandoned and nearly depleted gas fields. A depleted gas field from the Bredasdorp Basin in South Africa was selected for CO2‐EGR and storage, given the availability of data and infrastructure. The reservoir of interest is divided into compartments, with this study focusing exclusively on compartment C1. The gas in place (Gi) in compartment C1 was 5.8E+08 MSCF, which was reduced to 3.33E+08 MSCF at the end of the primary production phase. The results obtained indicated that the gas reservoir is very heterogeneous, and a recovery of 20% can be achieved if the injection and production rates are 500 and 3000 MSCF/day, respectively. The amount of CO2 injected after 71 years was about 7.78E+07 MSCF. It was shown that the CO2 in this field can be injected for 71 years without causing problems with the integrity of the reservoir. The economic model was built assuming a project duration of 10 years. The model shows that the total cost of carbon capture, transport and storage is higher than the total revenue for 8 years of natural gas utilisation, which means that the amount of gas recovered from compartment C1 of the reservoir could not offset the cost of CCUS. It is recommended that additional data be collected for the C2 compartment, the carbon capture processes at the Mossel Bay GTL plant, and pipeline transportation to reduce the uncertainty of the proposed economic model. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Pathways for electric power industry to achieve carbon emissions peak and carbon neutrality based on LEAP model: A case study of state-owned power generation enterprise in China

Global climate change is a growing concern for the international community. China has played an active and constructive role in the global combat against climate change. Given the dominating role of coal in China’s power supply mix, it is especially urgent to find pathways for the electric power industry to achieve carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. Using the case of a state-owned power generation enterprise, this paper explores pathways for the Enterprise to reach carbon emissions peak and carbon neutrality in five scenarios based on the Low Emission Analysis Platform (LEAP) model. The modeling process takes into consideration of technologies’ learning curve of generation technologies, carbon capture rate, and environmental cost (carbon price) for fossil fuel generators. The LEAP model simulates the structure of the electric power supply, CO2 emissions from power generation, total costs (including capital cost, O&M cost, fuel cost and carbon price), and carbon capture costs. The results show that carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) is crucial to achieving CO2 reduction while maintaining a certain amount of thermal power installed capacity to ensure grid system inertia and security. Biomass power coupled with CCUS is an important carbon negative technology for achieving carbon neutrality. Based on simulations and scenario analysis, this paper proposes policy recommendations for the electric power industry to realize carbon emissions peaking and carbon neutrality.

Decarbonization of cement production in a hydrogen economy

The transition to net-zero emission energy systems creates synergistic opportunities across sectors. For example, fuel hydrogen production from water electrolysis generates by-product oxygen that could be used to reduce the cost of carbon capture and storage (CCS) essential in the decarbonization of clinker production in cement making. To assess this opportunity, a techno-economic assessment was carried out for the production of clinker using oxy-combustion in a natural gas-fueled plant coupled to CCS. Material and energy flows were assessed in a reference case for clinker production (oxygen from air, no CCS), and compared to oxy-combustion clinker production from either an air separation unit (ASU, 95% O2), or water electrolysis (100% O2), both coupled to CCS. Compared to the reference, air-combusted clinker plant, oxy-combustion increases thermal energy demand by 7% and electricity demand by 137% for ASU and 67% for electrolytic oxygen. The levelized cost of oxygen supply ranges from $49/tO2 for an on-site ASU to pipelined electrolytic O2 at $35/tO2 (200 km) or $13/t O2 (20 km). The cost of clinker for the reference plant without CCS increases linearly from $84/t clinker to $193/t clinker at a carbon price of $0/tCO2 to $150/tCO2, respectively. With oxy-combustion and CCS, the clinker production cost ranges from $119 to $122/t clinker, reflecting a breakeven carbon price of $39 to $53/tCO2 compared to the reference case. The lower cost for the electrolytic supply of by-product oxygen compared to ASU oxygen must be balanced against the reliability of supply, the pipeline transport distance and the charges that may be added by the hydrogen producer.