Cost-effective Protection Research Articles

An applicable real-time thermal model for temperature prediction of permanent magnet synchronous motor

This article presents an applicable real-time thermal model for the temperature prediction of permanent magnet synchronous motors. The load capacities of most permanent magnet synchronous motors are usually limited by the temperature, and overheating is one of the main reasons for permanent magnet synchronous motors breakdown, so an applicable temperature prediction approach is helpful to improve motor utilization and protect permanent magnet synchronous motors from thermal distortion. Compared with embedding temperature sensors into motor structures, implementing real-time thermal model in motor controllers is a cost-effective and rapid response protection method, but it still faces the challenges on the temperature estimation accuracy, the complexity of the model parameters and the computational efforts. To balance every aspect of these challenges, this article tries a simple real-time thermal model to accurately predict the thermal behavior by elaborately modeling stator core losses and considering motor itself cooling ability. The affections of the motor current and speed on the core losses are analyzed and a polynomial equation is adopted to deal with their dependencies. To simulate the motor speed impact on the cooling ability, motor speed is involved in the variable thermal conductance of the motor housing inside the surroundings by another polynomial equation. This article describes how to get the most parameters of the proposed real-time thermal model through motor basic dimensional information and introduces the test methods employed to determine the parameters of the above two polynomial equations. In the experiments, first the thermal model building process is provided by an actual permanent magnet synchronous motor with two simple tests, and then the online analytical expressions with the obtained parameters are implemented in the drive controller to verify the performance of the proposed real-time thermal model. The results of the performance tests show that the real-time thermal model has a good agreement between estimated and measured temperature values, and its performance can satisfy the most actual applications.

Application of Graph Theory to Cost-Effective Fire Protection of Chemical Plants During Domino Effects.

In the present study, we have introduced a methodology based on graph theory and multicriteria decision analysis for cost-effective fire protection of chemical plants subject to fire-induced domino effects. By modeling domino effects in chemical plants as a directed graph, the graph centrality measures such as out-closeness and betweenness scores can be used to identify the installations playing a key role in initiating and propagating potential domino effects. It is demonstrated that active fire protection of installations with the highest out-closeness score and passive fire protection of installations with the highest betweenness score are the most effective strategies for reducing the vulnerability of chemical plants to fire-induced domino effects. We have employed a dynamic graph analysis to investigate the impact of both the availability and the degradation of fire protection measures over time on the vulnerability of chemical plants. The results obtained from the graph analysis can further be prioritized using multicriteria decision analysis techniques such as the method of reference point to find the most cost-effective fire protection strategy.

The protective effect of forests against rockfalls across the French Alps: Influence of forest diversity

The role of forests in the mitigation of natural hazards has been repeatedly demonstrated. The protective effect of mountain forests against rockfalls has especially been pointed out because it can constitute a natural and cost-effective protection measure in many situations. However, this particular ecosystem service may substantially differ according to the structure and the composition of the forest. Until now, the rockfall protection capability has always been studied at a local scale with only few forest types. Moreover, the comparison of the protective effect of the different forest types studied remains difficult because different methods and indicators were used. For the same reasons, it is not possible to draw conclusions about the influence of biological and structural diversities on the protection capabilities of forests from former works.The aims of this study were (1) to quantitatively assess the protective effect of forests at the French Alps scale and build a classification based on the protection capability, (2) to compare the protective effect of the different forest types present in the French Alps and (3) to analyze the relations between the protective effect and the forest diversity in terms of stand structure and tree composition. For this purpose, the model Rockyfor3D was used to simulate the propagation of rocks on 3886 different forest plots spread over the whole French Alps. Quantitative indicators characterizing the protective effect of each forest plot were then calculated from the simulation results and used to perform the different analyses.Our results emphasized the importance of taking into account the length of forest in the maximum slope direction for an accurate assessment of the protective effect. Thus, the minimum length of forest to get a reduction of 99% of the rockfall hazard was chosen as indicator to compare protective effect between forests. Using this indicator, half of the French Alpine forests presented a high level of protection after a short forested slope (190m). A decreasing gradient in the protection capabilities was observed from forest types dominated by broadleaved species to those dominated by conifer species. Moreover, considering an equivalent proportion of conifers, stands dominated by shade-tolerant tree species showed better ability to reduce rockfall hazard. Finally, our study highlighted that a high biodiversity and a structural heterogeneity within the forest have a positive effect on the reduction of rockfalls hazard.

White willow sexual regeneration capacity under estuarine conditions in times of climate change

Tidal wetlands provide both habitats for coastal populations and wildlife, and ecosystem services for human welfare. Building with nature regarding cost-effective coastal protection is of increasing interest. Much research has been carried out on plant reproduction capacities in mangroves and salt marshes, but less is known on this issue in tidal freshwater wetlands. Willows are being successfully used for bank stabilization in riverine habitats, however, today white willow softwood forests in tidal wetlands are highly fragmented, and restoration is required e.g. by the European Habitats Directive. Recently, tolerance to increasing salinity and tidal flooding was found for vegetative propagules of floodplain willows. However, the establishment of autochthonous sexual recruits is necessary to conserve the genetic diversity of local populations, and thus may be preferable in restoration. The germination and early seedling establishment of Salix alba (white willow) was experimentally studied under simulated estuarine conditions. The species tolerance to increasing salinity (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2) was tested in a climate chamber, and its tolerance to flooding at different tidal treatments (control, spring tide, daily tide 15 min and 2 h flooding) in the greenhouse. Germination was neither affected by increasing salinity nor by tidal flooding. Salix seedlings established up to salinity 1.5, but cotyledon performance and radicle growth was largely reduced at salinity 2. Under tidal flooding, seedling growth was similar in all treatments. However, in the treatments with daily tides seedling anchorage in the substrate took more than two weeks, and fewer seedlings reached a suitable length to approach the high water line. We assess S. alba sexual regeneration under estuarine conditions as generally possible. Further studies are needed on the effects of sedimentation-erosion processes on willow establishment in the field, especially on feedbacks between Salix survival and tidal wetland evolution.

A Low-Cost, Radiation-Hardened Method for Pipeline Protection in Microprocessors

The aggressive scaling of semiconductor technology has significantly increased the radiation-induced soft-error rate in modern microprocessors. Meanwhile, due to the increasing complexity of modern processor pipelines and the limited error-tolerance capabilities that previous radiation hardening techniques can provide, the existing pipeline protection mechanisms cannot achieve complete protection. This paper proposes a complete and cost-effective pipeline protection mechanism using a self-checking architecture. The radiation-hardened pipeline is achieved by incorporating soft-error- and timing-error-tolerant flip-flop (SETTOFF)-based self-checking cells into the sequential cells of the pipeline. A replay recovery mechanism is also developed at the architectural level to recover the detected errors. The proposed pipeline protection technique is implemented in an OpenRISC microprocessor in a 65-nm technology. A gate-level transient fault-injection and analysis technique is used to evaluate the error-tolerance capability of the proposed hardened pipeline design. The results show that compared with the techniques such as triple modular redundancy, the SETTOFF-based self-checking technique requires over 30% less area and 80% less power overheads. Meanwhile, the error-tolerant and self-checking capabilities of the register allow the proposed pipeline protection technique to provide a noticeably higher level of reliability for different parts of the pipeline compared with the previous pipeline protection techniques.

Catastrophe Bonds-Regulating a Growing Asset Class

As the severity of natural catastrophes continues to intensify, disaster risk management is becoming increasingly important. In order to expand the capacity of the insurance markets, insurers and reinsurers have utilized alternative risk financing mechanisms such as catastrophe (CAT) bonds. Although the CAT bond market has increased recently, past CAT bond defaults have demonstrated that there are still concerns relating to contract documentation and the collateral structure of the bonds. This article argues that additional regulation that addresses these contracting problems and financial risks would facilitate greater use of CAT bonds. Regulatory change should also include industry-wide accounting and tax reforms that will further support risk management objectives and the growth of the market. If the CAT bond market continues to experience the growth that was witnessed in the past year and additional regulation is implemented, insurers, reinsurers and governments can benefit from the cost-effective protection that the instruments may provide in the event of a mega-catastrophe.

Life-cycle based design of mass dampers for the Chilean region and its application for the evaluation of the effectiveness of tuned liquid dampers with floating roof

The assessment of the effectiveness of mass dampers for the Chilean region within a multi-objective decision framework utilizing life-cycle performance criteria is considered in this paper. The implementation of this framework focuses here on the evaluation of the potential as a cost-effective protection device of a recently proposed liquid damper, called tuned liquid damper with floating roof (TLD-FR). The TLD-FR maintains the advantages of traditional tuned liquid dampers (TLDs), i.e. low cost, easy tuning, alternative use of water, while establishing a linear and generally more robust/predictable damper behavior (than TLDs) through the introduction of a floating roof. At the same time it suffers (like all other liquid dampers) from the fact that only a portion of the total mass contributes directly to the vibration suppression, reducing its potential effectiveness when compared to traditional tuned mass dampers. A life-cycle design approach is investigated here for assessing the compromise between these two features, i.e. reduced initial cost but also reduced effectiveness (and therefore higher cost from seismic losses), when evaluating the potential for TLD-FRs for the Chilean region. Leveraging the linear behavior of the TLD-FR a simple parameterization of the equations of motion is established, enabling the formulation of a design framework that beyond TLDs-FR is common for other type of linear mass dampers, something that supports a seamless comparison to them. This framework relies on a probabilistic characterization of the uncertainties impacting the seismic performance. Quantification of this performance through time-history analysis is considered and the seismic hazard is described by a stochastic ground motion model that is calibrated to offer hazard-compatibility with ground motion prediction equations available for Chile. Two different criteria related to life-cycle performance are utilized in the design optimization, in an effort to support a comprehensive comparison between the examined devices. The first one, representing overall direct benefits, is the total life-cycle cost of the system, composed of the upfront device cost and the anticipated seismic losses over the lifetime of the structure. The second criterion, incorporating risk-averse concepts into the decision making, is related to consequences (repair cost) with a specific probability of exceedance over the lifetime of the structure. A multi-objective optimization is established and stochastic simulation is used to estimate all required risk measures. As an illustrative example, the performance of different mass dampers placed on a 21-story building in the Santiago area is examined.

Fast OLT-Protection Method Based on Normal MPCP and Backup Wavelength Pre-assignment on WDM/TDM-PONs [Invited

This paper proposes a novel method for N∶1 optical line terminal (OLT) protection on wavelengthdivision- multiplexing/time-division-multiplexing passive optical networks (WDM/TDM-PONs). The N∶1 OLT protection scheme based on in-service wavelength tuning -tuning) at optical network units (ONUs) provides reliable and cost-effective protection without the need for equipment specific to OLT protection on either the ONU or OLT side. Since the normal multipoint control protocol (MPCP) and backup wavelength pre-assignment are utilized, the proposed method significantly shortens the maximum protection time in N∶1 OLT protection. Results of trials on a 40 Gbit/s (10 Gbit∕s × 4 wavelengths) system with 40 km single mode fiber (SMF) transmission show service interruption times of less than 50 ms at all times, even with the practical -tuning time of 30 ms. The system trials also verify that the proposed method assures service interruption times of less than 50 ms, even with the split ratio on a PON of up to 512. These results verify that the proposed method is promising for next-generation multiservice convergence access networks.

A Low-Power Single Chip Li-Ion Battery Protection IC

A fully integrated cost-effective and lowpower single chip Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery protection IC (BPIC) for portable devices is presented. The control unit of the battery protection system and the MOSFET switches are integrated in a single package to protect the battery from over-charge, over-discharge, and over-current. The proposed BPIC enters into low-power standby mode when the battery becomes over-discharged. A new auto release function (ARF) is adopted to release the BPIC from standby mode and safely return it to normal operation mode. A new delay shorten mode (DSM) is also proposed to reduce the test time without increasing pin counts. The BPIC implemented in a 0.18-mm CMOS process occupies an area of 750 mm×610 mm. With DSM enabled, the measured test time is dramatically reduced from 56.82 s to 0.15 s. The BPIC chip consumes 3 mA under normal operating conditions and 0.45 mA under standby mode.

Occupational Pension as Second Pillar Provision in the EU Policy Context

The ageing population in the European Union (EU) and the effects of the financial and economic crisis has strained the sustainability of public pension schemes in Member States (MS). To ensure adequate incomes for people after retirement, many MS are putting increasing emphasis on supplementary forms of retirement income. These include occupational pension schemes that provide retirement income based on employment earnings during working life. Whilst MS are responsible for the design of their pension systems, occupational pensions affect, or are affected by, various EU policies and concerns. Free movement of workers means that workers should preserve rights in occupational pensions when they move to another MS. EU-wide companies need “cost-efficient” ways to provide pensions to workers in different MS. The European Commission has proposed, or will, improvements in both areas. Furthermore, workers also need cost-effective protection against risks (including employer insolvency) and reliable pension information to make good retirement decisions. Increasing reliance on occupational pensions may put women at risk of poverty in old age. Though MS will continue to support a very wide variety of approaches to occupational pensions, the EU can contribute to ensuring that citizens enjoy an adequate and sustainable income in old age. This paper aims to give an insight into how occupational pension stands as “second pillar” provision in the EU policy context. Key issues in pension provisions in the European Union (pensions and employer insolvency, risk management, and gender) have also been discussed. Secondary data have been used in the paper and they have been analyzed using descriptive research method, with appropriate examples of occupational pension provisions in the European Union.The paper concludes that occupational pensions: a) are an efficient way of saving for supplementary pensions, and b) can offer wide coverage and economies of scale in governance, and management.

On the improvement of network resource utilization efficiency for the establishment of static dependable connections in SRLG-constrained WDM translucent networks

In this paper, we investigate the problem of establishing static connections with fault-tolerant requirements, also known as dependable connections, taking into account quality of transmission constraints. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that tackles the aforementioned problem under shared risk link group (SRLG) constraints in translucent WDM optical mesh networks where typically a set of strategically localized network nodes are equipped with regeneration capability to overcome physical-layer impairment effects. A novel cross-layer heuristic approach is introduced to solve the problem for an heterogeneous networked scenario relying on a cost-effective two-stage protection procedure which combines the well-known path protection and partial path protection schemes in order to ensure instantaneous recovery from any SRLG-failure event. The proposed heuristic integrates a generic auxiliary graph model that incorporates various network heterogeneity factors such as the number of transceivers at each network node, the number of wavelengths on each fiber link, and the regeneration capability of each node, represented by different edges in the constructed graph. Moreover, the integrated auxiliary graph can be applied efficiently to model either single- or mixed-line-rate translucent WDM optical networks wherein different modulation formats are employed in order to support the transmission at different line rates. Our solution approach aims at maximizing the total number of accommodated requests by reducing network resource consumption through the simultaneous use of the backup---backup and primary---backup multiplexing techniques. We, here, present extended versions of these two techniques that generalize the sharing concept to some other important node resources--specifically, regeneration equipments which constitute the major cost factor in optical transport networks--in addition to link resources (i.e., wavelength channels). As far as we know, this is the first attempt to deploy simultaneously generalized versions of the backup---backup and primary---backup multiplexing techniques when considering static traffic patterns without compromising the 100 % fault-recoverability guarantee. The performances of the proposed heuristic are evaluated and discussed through extensive numerical experiments carried out on different network topologies. Significant improvements are demonstrated, either in terms of network blocking performance or in terms of resource utilization efficiency, in comparison with previously proposed approaches.

Novel Fault Ride-Through Scheme and Control Strategy for Doubly Fed Induction Generator-Based Wind Turbine

This paper presents a novel modulated series dynamic braking resistor (MSDBR) control strategy for enhancing the fault ride-through (FRT) of doubly fed induction generator-based wind turbines. The proposed cost-effective protection scheme introduces a voltage booster that offers series voltage compensation capability and provides a means of power evacuation to mitigate the power imbalance during grid faults. To attain flexible and robust control solution for handling both balanced and unbalanced grid faults, the proposed scheme employs a modulated pulse width modulation (PWM) switching technique to control the stator phase voltage individually. The proposed transient management scheme allows the MSDBR to mitigate the impact from different types of grid faults and to fulfill with the recent grid code requirement. Also, reactive current injection capability during faults is also investigated with the proposed voltage reference algorithm. For the controller design, small-signal modeling is utilized with consideration of measurement dynamics for the tuning of controller parameters in order to ensure the system robustness and stability. Finally, the simulation results demonstrate the satisfactory performance of the MSDBR with its preferred allocation for enhancing the FRT performance against both balanced and unbalanced faults.

Numerical analysis results of the cathodic protection for the underground steel pipe by anode installation method

This study aims to find out the best anode location for buried pipelines. Numerical simulation program known as CATPRO(Elsyca, Belgium) were used for confirming the best location of anodes and the effects of impressed current cathodic protection system. Applied conditions for numerical simulation were similar to on-site environmental conditions for optimal application of cathodic protection system. Used criterion of cathodic protection was NACE SP 0169, which describes that minimum requirement for cathodic protection is -850mV vs. CSE. Various layouts for anodes’ installation were applied, which were distance between anodes, anode installation location, and applied current. The areas where cathodic protection potential was lower than -850mV vs. CSE was limited up to 50m from anode installation locations. It was founded numerical analysis obtain cost-effective and efficient cathodic protection methods before design and application the impressed cathodic protection system to on-site environment.

INTEGRATED CORROSION PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR SHIP STRUCTURES

Corrosion combined with fouling growth can interfere with the operation of submerged equipment, impose increased loading stresses and accelerate deterioration of marine structures, and adversely affect the performance of ships by increasing hydrodynamic drag, which necessitates the use of more power and fuel to move the ship through the water. The protection of the submerged portions of a ship's hull seems to have been long acknowledged and practiced but corrosion related failure of ship components continue to occur giving economical loss to ship owners. An enlightened approach to materials selection, protection and corrosion control is needed to minimize the risk of failures or major renewals of hull structures during the ship's expected life span. Further, Proper and cost effective corrosion protection measures are necessary to maintain the asset value of the vessel with a special emphasis on the means and methods now being adopted in international regulatory regimes to contain it. This paper addresses the causes of corrosion in ship and the way in which corrosion can be reduced or entirely eliminated in a ship by integrating both technical and non technical methods of corrosion control.

Bridging the research implementation gap – Identifying cost-effective protection measures for Montagu’s harrier nests in Spanish farmlands

Expensive active management programs are increasing worldwide, while resources for conservation remain scarce. There is a need to evaluate management actions, so that scarce resources are used more cost-effectively. We evaluate the effectiveness of alternative protection measures for Montagu’s harrier nests in Spanish farmlands. The species is focus of extensive protection measures across Europe owing to high rates of nest destruction during mechanical harvesting operations. We use a novel approach, combining Latin hypercube sampling and population viability analysis in order to explore the impact of alternative protection measures on populations’ persistence across a whole range of resource allocation scenarios. We also report estimates of financial costs for different protection measures. Our results show that, in absence of nest protection, Spanish harrier populations would most likely decrease during the next 20 years. The most cost-effective protection measures, among those evaluated, were the relocation or removal of the chicks and harvest delay, although this varied according to region and context. Interestingly, retention of a small un-harvested buffer around the nest, despite being widely implemented across Spain, was less cost-effective than the other two protection measures. Overall, the cost-effectiveness of each protection measure varied widely by region and by local agronomic context. We ultimately explore what proportion of nests could be protected with the most effective measure in each studied region, and estimate how much this effort would cost to local administrations. This is a clear example of conservation science producing outcomes relevant to action.

Total exposure to airborne particulate matter in cities: The effect of biomass combustion

The study deals with the seasonal variability of PM exposure and the effect that biomass combustion has upon it in the urban environment. The study is based on measurements, chemical analyses and modeling results performed in Thessaloniki (Greece). The measurements campaign included the assessment of outdoor and indoor air quality and the evaluation of biomass use for domestic heating. The outdoor measurements highlighted a significant increase of PM10 (from 30.1 to 73.1μg/m3) and PM2.5 (from 19.4 to 62.7μg/m3) concentrations during the transition from the warm to the cold period of the year 2012 compared to 2011. The increase in ambient air PM during the winter was attributed to the use of biomass burning for space heating. The latter was verified by the presence of levoglucosan in the PM (concentrations up to 8μg/m3), especially for samples taken from the urban background site. Outdoor PM concentrations were also modeled using an artificial neural network model taking into account major meteorological parameters; the latter explained more than 90% of PM10 and PM2.5day-to-day variability. Indoor concentrations followed a similar pattern, while in the case of fireplace use, average daily concentrations rise to 10μg/m3 and 14μg/m3 for PM2.5 and PM10 respectively. Indoor air concentrations were affected the most by the ambient air particle infiltration. Indoor air quality went down after 3h of open fire biomass combustion for space heating. Personal exposure was significantly determined by overall indoor air quality. Yet, dynamic exposure analysis revealed that peaks of intake do not correspond to peaks of ambient air PM concentrations altering thus total exposure patterns. Thus, cost-effective public health protection has to aim at reducing the exposure profile of susceptible population sub-groups combining awareness raising, emission reduction measures and financial incentives to influence the choice of space heating systems.

SOFT ERROR RATE ESTIMATION FOR COMBINATIONAL LOGIC IN PRESENCE OF SINGLE EVENT MULTIPLE TRANSIENTS

Fast and accurate estimation of soft error rate in VLSI circuits is an essential step in a soft error tolerant ASIC design. In order to have a cost effective protection against radiation effects in combinational logics, an accurate and fast method for identification of most susceptive gates and paths is needed. In this paper, an efficient, fast and accurate method for soft error propagation probability (SEPP) estimation is presented and its performance is evaluated. This method takes into account all three masking factors in multi cycles. It also considers multiple event transients as a new challenge in soft error tolerant VLSI circuit design. Compared with Monte Carlo (MC) simulation-based fault injection method, our SEPP estimation method has a high level of accuracy (with less than 2% difference) while offering 1000× speedup as compared with MC-based simulation.

Analyzing the stability of a failing rock slope for suggesting suitable mitigation measure: a case study from the Theng rockslide, Sikkim Himalayas, India

At km 87.20 near Theng on the North Sikkim Highway, India, severe rock falls and slides in recent years rendered 180 m stretch of this important road corridor in the Sikkim Himalayas risky and vulnerable to the commuters. The rockslide at Theng has, thus, been studied in detail at 24 discrete locations using the ground-based topographic, lithologic and structural data with an objective to evaluate the mechanisms of rock sliding for suggesting the most effective mitigation measure. In this study, large scale geological mapping and site-specific kinematic analyses in different spatial domains corroborated that within this 180 m stretch, despite having a competent lithology (quartzo feldspathic gneiss and quartzites), the possibility of both plane and wedge failures are high because of gentler and unfavourably oriented planar discontinuities with respect to the available steep topography. The rock slope failure analysis both at discrete locations and in a distributed manner in a Geographic Information System further revealed that unfavourable geometric disposition of discontinuities at Theng rendered multiple modes of failure at critical locations, which is also corroborated by a very low Slope Mass Rating value (4.0) determined in this area, thus, making it difficult to suggest any cost-effective surface protection measure. However, analysis suggests slope dressing or re-excavation to contain future rock sliding in such cases, but the same appears to be difficult to implement on the ground because of unfavourable kinematic conditions of the vulnerable rock discontinuities. Accordingly, after evaluating the site conditions in detail, a short road tunnel with its probable tunnel rockmass conditions is proposed to bypass this active rock sliding stretch.

A Novel Approach for Arc-Flash Detection and Mitigation: At the Speed of Light and Sound

Arc flash (AF) protection is very important for all power and process industries to maintain the safety of personnel at the workplace. As the amount of incident AF energy is a function of time, every millisecond counts in the race toward reducing the amount of incident energy to which an individual might be subjected. Since the introduction of the first AF detection technology, the ability to dynamically process not only light but also other signatures has become technologically and economically feasible - enabling faster operating times (less than 4 ms). This paper proposes a novel technology which utilizes a unique signature of the light and sound pressure signals during AF within metal-clad switchgear/cabling compartments. The detection of light and sound by means of a modern and newly developed sensor technology provides fast, secure, and cost-effective protection against AF, even for low/load-current arcing events. Furthermore, the extensive laboratory testing is presented considering various scenarios, e.g., the distance from the arc, sensor's exposure to the arc, directions between the arc and sensor head, and arcing current. The testing results are analyzed and discussed in detail.

Revisiting Germany’s solar cell promotion: An unfolding disaster

This article revisits an analysis by Frondel et al. (2008) on the promotion of photovoltaics (PV) in Germany, a technology that enjoys particularly high subsidies in the form of feed-in tariffs. The result is explosive costs with little to show for either environmental or employment benefits. Indeed, we document that the immense costs foreseen by Frondel and colleagues have materialized: our updated estimate of the subsidies for PV, at € 108 Bn, even exceeds their expectations. Moreover, with installed PV capacities growing at a rapid rate, these costs will continue to accumulate, diverting resources from more cost-effective climate protection instruments.