Corvid Birds Research Articles

Tests of inferential reasoning by exclusion in Clark’s nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana)

We examined inferential reasoning by exclusion in the Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) using two-way object-choice procedures. While other social scatter-hoarding corvids appear capable of engaging in inferential reasoning, it remains unclear if the relatively less social nutcracker is able to do so. In an initial experiment, food was hidden in one of two opaque containers. All of the birds immediately selected the baited container when shown only the empty container during testing. We subsequently examined the nutcrackers in two follow-up experiments using a task that may have been less likely to be solved by associative processes. The birds were trained that two distinctive objects were always found hidden in opaque containers that were always positioned at the same two locations. During testing, one of the two objects was found in a transparent "trash bin" and was unavailable. The birds were required to infer that if one of the objects was in the "trash," then the other object should still be available in its hidden location. Five out of six birds were unable to make this inference, suggesting that associative mechanisms likely accounted for our earlier results. However, one bird consistently chose the object that was not seen in the "trash," demonstrating that nutcrackers may have the ability to use inferential reasoning by exclusion to solve inference tasks. The role of scatter hoarding and social organization is discussed as factors in the ability of corvid birds to reason.

Solution of Revecz-Krushinskii test by animals of different taxonomic groups

There has been compared behavior of rats, corvid birds, and monkeys of different species at their performance of the Revecz-Krushinskii test (RKT) developed by L.V. Krushinskii to estimate the human capability for revealing rule of discrete translocation of hidden target object. RKT was introduced as an addition to the test for extrapolation of the movement direction of the lure seen only at the initial pathway fragment; this test is close to Piaget’s test (stage 6) evaluating the capability for mental representation and location of the moving hidden object. During RKT, the lure, hidden from animals, was placed, near where it was previous time: at the first test presentation—under the 1st cylinder, at the 2nd one—under the 2nd cylinder, etc. The animals were tested once. It was shown that they did not catch the necessary for successful solution rule of the lure translocation, direction and step of its translocation at each presentation. Only some of the animals solved RKT, found the lure 3 and more times in succession with no errors or with one error. Nevertheless, in all groups the number of errors was lower than that in the model situation of random search. Such optimization was a consequence of universal for all groups’ strategy of search in the places where the lure was found recently. With the similar number of errors, rats, birds, and monkeys performed the search differently. Rats were looking for lure mainly among the cylinders where they had found it previously, whereas monkeys and birds the first the new cylinders located near the target one, which implies the existence, to the weak extent, of elements of prognosis. For all groups of animals, RKT turned out to be more difficult both of the test for extrapolation and of the Piaget’s test.

Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Genes in Fecal Bacteria from Rooks Commonly Wintering Throughout Europe

This study concerned the occurrence of fecal bacteria with plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) genes in rooks (Corvus frugilegus, medium-sized corvid birds) wintering in continental Europe during winter 2010/2011. Samples of fresh rook feces were taken by cotton swabs at nine roosting places in eight European countries. Samples were transported to one laboratory and placed in buffered peptone water (BPW). The samples from BPW were enriched and subcultivated onto MacConkey agar (MCA) supplemented with ciprofloxacin (0.06 mg/L) to isolate fluoroquinolone-resistant bacteria. DNA was isolated from smears of bacterial colonies growing on MCA and tested by PCR for PMQR genes aac(6')-Ib, qepA, qnrA, qnrB, qnrC, qnrD, qnrS, and oqxAB. All the PCR products were further analyzed by sequencing. Ciprofloxacin-resistant bacteria were isolated from 37% (392 positive/1,073 examined) of samples. Frequencies of samples with ciprofloxacin-resistant isolates ranged significantly from 3% to 92% in different countries. The qnrS1 gene was found in 154 samples and qnrS2 in 2 samples. The gene aac(6')-Ib-cr was found in 16 samples. Thirteen samples were positive for qnrB genes in variants qnrB6 (one sample), qnrB18 (one), qnrB19 (one), qnrB29 (one), and qnrB49 (new variant) (one). Both the qnrD and oqxAB genes were detected in six samples. The genes qnrA, qnrC, and qepA were not found. Wintering omnivorous rooks in Europe were commonly colonized by bacteria supposedly Enterobacteriaceae with PMQR genes. Rooks may disseminate these epidemiologically important bacteria over long distances and pose a risk for environmental contamination.

Temporal and Spatial Patterns of West Nile Virus Transmission in Saginaw County, Michigan, 2003–2006

The dynamics of West Nile virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus, WNV) infection in mosquitoes, sentinel pheasants, and wild dead birds were evaluated during 2003-2006 in Saginaw Co., MI. Mosquitoes were collected by New Jersey Light Traps at 22 sites during May-September, pooled by species and sample location, and tested for presence of WNV RNA by using a real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay. Oral swabs from wild dead birds submitted by the public were tested by Vec-Test assay. Sentinel pheasants were bled weekly, and serum was tested for antibodies with an inhibition enzyme immunoassay. In total, 37,225 mosquitoes [Aedes vexans (Meigen), Culex pipiens L., and Culex restuans Theobald] were tested in 5,429 pools, of which 59 (1.1%) were positive. Ae. vexans was most abundant but had a comparatively low infection rate (0.06-2.11) compared with Cx. pipiens (1.75-4.59) and Cx. restuans (1.22-15.67). Mosquito abundances were temporally related to variations in 2-wk average weather variables. Infected dead crows appeared earlier each transmission season than blue jays, but infection prevalence for both peaked approximately mid-August. Space-time clusters were found in different locations each year. Sentinel pheasant seroprevalence was 19.3% (16/83), 12.7% (10/79), and 7.7% (5/65) during 2003-2005, respectively. We demonstrated temporal patterns of WNV activity in corvid birds and Culex spp. mosquitoes during the study period, suggesting virus transmission within an enzootic cycle. Despite the absence of human case reports nearby, this surveillance system demonstrated WNV transmission and possible human risk. Maintained surveillance using more appropriate gravid traps and CDC CO2 light traps could improve sensitivity of vector collection and virus detection.

Corvid birds (Corvidae) act as definitive hosts for Sarcocystis ovalis in moose (Alces alces)

Epidemiological data and a unique phylogenetic position had suggested that Sarcocystis ovalis in moose and red deer might use a definitive host other than canids, felids, or humans. Corvid birds and rats were therefore evaluated as potential definitive hosts for this species in a small pilot study. Four laboratory rats were each inoculated with 10 or 25 sarcocysts of S. ovalis isolated from moose, but no Sarcocystis oocysts were detected in their intestinal mucosa upon euthanasia 2 to 3 weeks later. At a site where large flocks of corvid birds (hooded crows, ravens and European magpies) fed on remnants of moose carcasses during the hunting period in October, fresh bird droppings were collected on the ground and examined microscopically and by molecular methods. By microscopy, a small number of typical Sarcocystis sporocysts, measuring 12.8 × 8.4 μm, were found in the faecal samples. These sporocysts were identified as belonging to S. ovalis by a polymerase chain reaction assay using specific primer pairs targeting the ssu rRNA gene, followed by sequence analysis. The intestinal contents of a crow and two magpies shot near the dumping site were also examined. Sarcocystis oocysts (16.1 × 12.4 μm) and free sporocysts (12.5 × 7.9 μm) were found in the intestinal mucosa/contents of one magpie (Pica pica). These oocysts/sporocysts were also found to belong to S. ovalis by the same molecular assay. This is the first report of corvid birds acting as definitive hosts for a species of Sarcocystis.

The effect of recreational homes on willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) in a mountain area of Norway

The increasing development of recreational resorts and second homes in mountain regions worldwide require substantial infrastructure, and have large impact on habitats and ecosystems. We hypothesized that developed areas would attract predators and lead to higher predation on willow ptarmigan and lower their abundance. In a 500-km2 study area in south-central Norway, we sampled the density of territorial cocks in spring and the breeding success of willow ptarmigan along a 3-km gradient extending out from clusters of cabins. We also sampled red fox scats and corvid birds and measured nest predation on artificial nests across this gradient. Densities of cocks in the spring and of adults and brood sizes in August did not vary along the gradient. However, the density of chicks in August was higher beyond 1.5 km from cabin areas, presumably because more hens lost their clutches in the vicinity of cabins. This was supported by the results from the artificial nest experiment where significantly more nests were depredated near cabin areas than further away. The number of scats of red fox along trails increased with distance from cabins, whereas more corvid birds were observed near cabins. We conclude that corvid birds were the main cause of higher loss of ptarmigan nests near cabin areas, which led to lower production of chicks. Breeding density, however, did not seem to vary along the gradient, presumably because of suitable habitat for breeding and little human activity in these areas during the period of pair formation and nesting.

Intestinal spirochetes isolated from wild-living jackdaws, hooded crows and rooks (genus Corvus): Provisionally designated “ Brachyspira corvi” sp. nov.

Intestinal spirochetes of genus Brachyspira are commonly isolated from mammalian and avian hosts, and several species have been reported to cause enteric disease in pigs and birds. Except for a previous publication on three isolates from corvid birds (order Passeriformes, family Corvidae, genus Corvus), of which two are further studied in this paper, no other reports exist on Brachyspira spp. of passerine birds. In this study, cloacal and intestinal swabs of small and large intestines were collected from 116 corvid birds of three species, i.e. jackdaws ( Corvus monedula), hooded crows ( Corvus corone cornix) and rooks ( Corvus frugilegus), from four separate geographical locations in Sweden. Isolates were obtained by selective culture from 43 of 116 birds. All isolates were weakly hemolytic, indole-negative and lacked hippurate cleavage capacity. Examination by light microscopy did not indicate association with enteric disease in necropsied birds. Pure spirochete cultures were obtained by serial dilution and subculture, and selected isolates were analyzed by PCR ( n = 14), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) ( n = 14), and sequencing of the almost complete 16S rRNA ( n = 14), and partial nox genes ( n = 4). Positive reactions were noticed by PCR targeting a hexa-T segment of the 16S rRNA gene, which has been previously reported as a signature characteristic of Brachyspira pilosicoli. By 16S rRNA gene sequencing, the isolates formed a separate cluster related to genus Brachyspira, but not consistent with any presently recognized or proposed Brachyspira sp. The sequence similarity of the 16S rRNA gene among the isolates from corvid birds was 99.7–100%. Compared to 16S rRNA gene sequence data from all presently recognized and several proposed Brachyspira spp. the sequence similarity of the isolates from corvid birds varied between 94.1 and 96.5%. In a radial tree based on nox gene sequences, all four analyzed isolates from corvid birds formed a separate cluster. By RAPD analysis, the banding patterns of the isolates differed from all type strains of Brachyspira spp. Based on the results presented in this paper, we propose that the described isolates from corvid birds belong to a novel species within genus Brachyspira, with the provisional name ” Brachyspira corvi” (cor'vi. L gen. n. corvi, of a crow).

Recent fauna of ground-nesting birds in Transvolga steppes and its dynamics in the 20th century

It is shown that the structure of the ground-nesting bird fauna in Transvolga steppes has changed during the 20th century. The complex of lark species characteristic of true and dry steppe has disappeared because of climate change and impact of economic activity (the establishment of windbreak and roadside forest strips), which has provided for a sharp increase in the abundance of corvid birds.

Fire and stand history in two limber pine (Pinus flexilis) and Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) stands in Colorado

We developed fire-scar and tree-recruitment chronologies from two stands dominated by limber pine and Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine in central and northern Colorado. Population structures in both sites exhibit reverse-J patterns common in uneven-aged forests. Bristlecone pine trees were older than any other at the site or in the limber pine stand, with the oldest tree dating to 780 AD and several dating to the 1000s and 1100s. The oldest trees in the limber pine stand date to the 1400s, with a majority of recruitment after an apparent bark beetle outbreak in the early 1800s. Spatial patterning in the limber pine suggests that the oldest trees established from seed caches left by corvid birds. Fire scars present in the early part of each chronology document that surface fire regimes dominated during certain periods. Decreased fire frequency, increased tree recruitment, and changes in species composition from the 1600s to1800s in the bristlecone pine may be reflective of cooler and wetter conditions during the Little Ice Age. Results suggest that a recent (1978) severe fire in the bristlecone pine stand that caused complete tree mortality was outside the historical range of variability in fire severity for at least the past ~1000 years.

Phylogenetic relationships between Sarcocystis species from reindeer and other Sarcocystidae deduced from ssu rRNA gene sequences

Six Sarcocystis species from reindeer ( S. grueneri, S. rangi, S. tarandivulpes, S. hardangeri, S. rangiferi and S. tarandi) have previously been genetically characterised. The aim of this study was to identify possible definitive hosts for S. hardangeri, S. rangiferi and S. tarandi by including the six species in phylogenetic analyses of the Sarcocystidae, and also to investigate the phylogenetic relationships between the species from reindeer and those from other hosts. The study also aimed at revealing whether the inclusion of six Sarcocystis species from the same intermediate host would have any effect on previously inferred phylogenetic relationships within the Sarcocystidae. The complete small subunit (ssu) rRNA gene sequences of all six Sarcocystis species from reindeer were used in the phylogenetic analyses along with ssu rRNA gene sequences of 85 other members of the Coccidea. Trees were constructed using Bayesian analysis and maximum likelihood estimations. All six Sarcocystis species from reindeer were placed together with other Sarcocystis species using an even-toed ungulate as their intermediate host. The three canine transmitted species, S. grueneri, S. rangi, S. tarandivulpes, formed a sister group to other Sarcocystis species with a canine definitive host. The position of S. hardangeri on the tree suggested that it uses another type of definitive host than the other Sarcocystis species in this clade. Considering the geographical distribution and infection intensity of S. hardangeri, corvid birds are perhaps its most likely definitive hosts. The phylogenetic position, geographical distribution, prevalence and morphological similarity to feline transmitted Sarcocystis species in closely related Cervidae suggest that the most likely definitive hosts of S. rangiferi and S. tarandi are felines, and in Norway notably the lynx. The overall phylogeny of the Sarcocystidae did not change by the inclusion of the six Sarcocystis species from reindeer. This study suggests that phylogentic analysis can be a useful tool in the search for possible definitive hosts for those Sarcocystis species for which they are unknown and difficult to find solely by other methods.

Phylogeographic patterns in widespread corvid birds

Intraspecific genetic diversity and phylogeography of Corvus corone was investigated using the mitochondrial (mt) control region as a molecular marker. A split into two distinct mt lineages was observed. One represents individuals from a wide geographic range spanning from England to the Russian Far East (Kamchatka), while the other one was found in the Primorye and Khabarovsk regions (southern parts of Russian Far East) as well as Japan. For comparison, we investigated several widespread Palearctic corvid taxa with respect to their phylogeographic patterns. A deep split into two lineages was revealed in five cases: Besides C. corone, within Corvus frugilegus, Pica pica, and between the species pairs Corvus monedula– Corvus dauuricus and Cyanopica cyanus– Cyanopica cooki. Although these taxa display a variety of distribution patterns, from disjunct, para/allopatric to continuous, the genetic pattern and level of divergence between clades is very similar. This implies that the differentiation started in about the same time range. In contrast, no differentiation into highly divergent lineages was detected in Corvus corax, Perisoreus infaustus, and Nucifraga caryocatactes. We try to explain the two phylogeographic patterns in corvid birds with ecological factors accompanying the changing climatic conditions during the Pleistocene. The deep genetic splits within several widely distributed Palearctic corvids are discussed with respect to taxonomic questions.

Do birds behave in order to avoid disclosing their nest site?

Capsule Three similarly sized passerine species with various breeding strategies behaved differently in the presence of models of mammalian and avian predators. Aims We tested whether solitary breeders behave in the presence of a predator in order to avoid disclosing their nest site in: hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca, shrub-nesting Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla and ground-nesting Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis. Methods The behaviour of parents in response to two types of predator model (visually oriented Corvid birds and olfactory oriented Mustelid mammals) placed sequentially at 40, 5 and 1 m distance from the nest was recorded from a shelter. Results The hypothesis was supported in open-nesting species (Meadow Pipit and Blackcap), as parents did not approach the nest in the presence of a predator. In the hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher the parents disclosed the nest site in most cases (by entering the nest). The intensity of alarm calling increased with decreasing distance of a predator from the nest in all species except Meadow Pipit in the presence of Raven Corvus corax models. The intensity of attacking changed only in Meadow Pipit with decreasing distance of Stoat Mustela erminea from the nest. Conclusion The results showed that anti-predator behaviour was species-specific, depending on type of predator, habitat and nest inaccessibility.

Egg and seed removal at urban and suburban forest edges

Predation rates of natural and artificial bird nests in rural landscapes have been the subject of numerous studies, often in the context of proximity to edge. Similar studies in urban and suburban landscapes are lacking. We carried out a study of egg and seed removal at forest reserve edges in three urban and two suburban forests in and near New York City in 1994-1995. Few significant edge effects were found, but this may have been because of the extraordinarily high rates of egg and seed removal. Daily removal rates were higher in suburban sites (eggs, 86%; seeds, 95%) than in urban sites (eggs, 64%; seeds, 88%). Exposed seeds and eggs suffered higher rates of removal than seeds and eggs covered by leaf litter. Despite statistically significant differences among treatments, all of these rates would be prohibitively high if experienced by ground-nesting birds or large-seeded trees (if removal was associated with predation). A survey of the literature suggests that egg predation rates are prohibitively high in cities and peak in suburban sites (at least in this study), then drop rapidly in ex-urban and rural sites, perhaps because of a similar pattern in the abundance of corvid bird predators.

A new species of Isospora Schneider, 1881 (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from the white-throated magpie jay Calocitta formosa (Passeriformes: Corvidae) from Costa Rica

A new species of isosporan (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is reported from two magpie jays Calocitta formosa (Swainson) (Passeriformes: Corvidae) from Costa Rica. Oocysts of Isospora calocitta n. sp. are spherical to subpherical, 28.8 × 27.7 (26.5–31.0 × 25.0–29.5) μm and have a shape index (length/width) of 1.04 (1.00–1.11). A micropyle and oocyst residuum are absent, but 1–3 polar granules are present. Sporocysts are ovoidal, 20.1 × 12.6 (19.0–21.5 × 11.5–13.5) μm, and have Stieda and substieda bodies and a shape index of 1.60 (1.47–1.69). A diffuse sporocyst residuum is present and each sporozoite contains two refractile bodies. A list of Isospora spp. in corvid birds is presented.

Neophilia and exploration in juvenile common ravens, Corvus corax

The well-known attraction of corvid birds ot bright, shiny, inanimate objects appears to be without direct or immediate utility. Whether this attraction is an exploratory behaviour related to food finding was tested. All objects that four ravens contracted in a semi-controlled but relatively natural forest environment during 38 (usually daily) 30-min sessions were recorded, starting when they left the nest. During the first 10 sessions (up to 15 days post-fledging), the young birds contracted 980 natural objects of 95 kinds or categories that were not added into their environment. In the 28 subsequent sessions, 44 novel item categories were introduced sequentially into their environment and the birds' attraction to these items was compared to previously seen (background) items and to seveal criteria (edible/inedible, conspicuous/cryptic). The juvenile birds always preferentially chose items that they had never seen before, from 42 to 24 000 times above previously contracted items. Attraction depended on the novelty of the item, without relevance to either its palatability or its shininess or conspicuousness. Novel inedible items, however, were soon treated as background items regardless of their conspicuousness or previous attractiveness. Edible items, in contrast, became preferred items. The birds' behaviour should result in their assessing the background milieu of any environment and then potentially finding all edible objects in it. This prediction was tested by subjecting the forest birds to a range of items from a seashore.

Differences in Predation Pressure in Relation to Habitat Fragmentation: An Experiment

Lindstrom, E. and Widen, P. 1985. Differences in pre- dation pressure in relation to habitat fragmentation: an experiment. -Oikos 45: 273- 277. In the holarctic zone many medium-sized herbivores exhibit cyclic fluctuations, which generally disappear towards the south. In Fennoscandia, cycles in abundance of te- traonid birds are found within the boreal zone but not south of it. The hypothesis that disappearance of cycles towards the south is due to increased predation pressure, pre- dicts a gradient in predation pressure in Sweden across the border between the boreal zone and the boreo-nemoral zone. This was tested using dummy nests to measure predation pressure. As predicted, we found higher predation rate south of the border and lower predation rate north of it. The rate of predation on experimental dummy nests was correlated with the abundance of corvid birds, which in turn was positively related to the proportion of agricultural land, human density and to the degree of fragmentation of forests. H. Andre'n, P. Angelstam, E. Lindstrom and P. Wide'n, Grimso Wildlife Research Sta- tion, S-770 31 Riddarhyttan, and Dept of Zoology, Univ. of Uppsala, Box 561, S-751

Étude expérimentale du développement larvaire d’Hymenolepis stylosa (Rudolphi, 1809) Raillet, 1899 (Cestode, Cyclophyllide)

Comparative studies of the larval development of Hymenolepis stylosa Rudolphi, 1809 (Cestoda : Cyclophyllidea), a parasite of Corvid birds are undertaken from three insect species. The development in the beetle, Tenebrio molitor shows that the scolex differenciation occurs before the invagination of the metacestode in the cystic vesicle. The cercomer is long, narrow and flexuous. In the grasshopper, Lousta migratoria, the development is the same one but the scolex invaganation begins early. In another beetle, Dermestes frischi, the oncosphere is stopped in the gut-wall. The morphology and development of the cysticercoids of avian species of Hymenolepis, which have a well known life cycle, are similar. Studies on the structure of the larval stages of avian and mammal species of Hymenolepis seem necessary to find the relations between the different species of this genus.

Speciation, transmission, and schizogony of leucocytozoon in corvid birds.

Leucocytozoon sakharoffi, L. berestneffi, L. laverani, and L. zuccarelli have been described from corvids although their gametocytes are indistinguishable. Experimental evidence suggests that the raven, Corvus corax, and crow, C. brachyrhynvhos harbor a species which is distinct from that in the blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata. The minimum prepatent period (92 h) in the jay is about a day shorter than that in the crow and raven. Hepatic, renal, and splenic schizonts occur in the jay and are probably initiated by sporozoites. Only hepatic and renal stages have been seen in a crow and raven but the relationship to each other is unknown. Hepatic schizonts are probably derived from sporozoites but the enormous number of the former at autopsy of two birds is suggestive of more than one hepatic generation. Our material exhibited neither megaloschizonls (as reported for L. sakharoffi) nor small hepatic schizonts (known from L. berestneffi). Additional studies of life cycles of Leucocytozoon in other corvids are necessary for the satisfactory elucidation of the specific status of these parasites.

Observations on the Epizootiology of Filarial Infections in Two Species of the Avian Family Corvidae

The occurrence of natural filarial infections in two corvid bird species was followed from February 1, 1952, through October 31, 1953, in birds collected monthly and examined for microfilariae. The hosts studied were 217 common crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos, and 490 blue jays, Cyanocitta cristata. This work had two objectives: to develop epizootiological data which would suggest the arthropod group to which the vector belongs; and to detect factors influencing natural transmission of the worms. Success in the first objective would favor elucidation of the life cycle, and the parasites might then be maintained in the laboratory for use in transmission experiments. The vector was not discovered, but facts were learned which suggest something of its activities. Data applicable to the second objective were obtained, but are not of full value until the vector is known. The findings are presented as a contribution to knowledge of parasitic infections in two host populations over an extended period.

On the Helminths of Corvid Birds in the British Isles

In 1925 Chapin reviewed the genera Syngamus and Cyathostoma and in the review described a new species of Syngamus which he had obtained from the American Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos: this, he called Syngamus gracilis. It had been found in a bird from the Zoological Gardens at Philadelphia. He was of the opinion that this species had probably been recovered before from the American Crow but that its specificity had not been recognised. He assumes, in fact, that some if not all of the records of the occurrence of S. trachea in this species of host, and by inference probably in other Corvidae also, are incorrect and that S. gracilis is the species found. He bases this assumption on the physiological reactions of the parasite. It is a well known fact that S. trachea does not establish itself well in chickens and can in fact only reach maturity in young or very sick birds. The turkey is generally assumed to be the natural host of this helminth and Chapin is of the opinion that if S. trachea cannot establish itself satisfactorily in the chicken, then it is highly improbable that it can do so in the crow. For the chicken and the turkey are closely related phylogenetically, both being gallinaceous birds while the crow belongs to the Corvidae, which has no near kinship with the Galliformes.