Corticostriatal Functional Connectivity Research Articles

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy-based neurofeedback training targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex induces changes in cortico-striatal functional connectivity

Due to its central role in cognitive control, the dorso–lateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) has been the target of multiple brain modulation studies. In the context of the present pilot study, the dlPFC was the target of eight repeated neurofeedback (NF) sessions with functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to assess the brain responses during NF and with functional and resting state magnetic resonance imaging (task-based fMRI and rsMRI) scanning. Fifteen healthy participants were recruited. Cognitive task fMRI and rsMRI were performed during the 1st and the 8th NF sessions. During NF, our data revealed an increased activity in the dlPFC as well as in brain regions involved in cognitive control and self-regulation learning (pFWE < 0.05). Changes in functional connectivity between the 1st and the 8th session revealed increased connectivity between the posterior cingulate cortex and the dlPFC, and between the posterior cingulate cortex and the dorsal striatum (pFWE < 0.05). Decreased left dlPFC-left insula connectivity was also observed. Behavioural results revealed a significant effect of hunger and motivation on the participant control feeling and a lower control feeling when participants did not identify an effective mental strategy, providing new insights on the effects of behavioural factors that may affect the NF learning.

Shared and Specific Changes of Cortico-Striatal Functional Connectivity in Stable Mild Cognitive Impairment and Progressive Mild Cognitive Impairment.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease, has two distinct subtypes: stable MCI (sMCI) and progressive MCI (pMCI). Early identification of the two subtypes has important clinical significance. We aimed to compare the cortico-striatal functional connectivity (FC) differences between the two subtypes of MCI and enhance the accuracy of differential diagnosis between sMCI and pMCI. We collected resting-state fMRI data from 31 pMCI patients, 41 sMCI patients, and 81 healthy controls. We chose six pairs of seed regions, including the ventral striatum inferior, ventral striatum superior, dorsal-caudal putamen, dorsal-rostral putamen, dorsal caudate, and ventral-rostral putamen and analyzed the differences in cortico-striatal FC among the three groups, additionally, the relationship between the altered FC within the MCI subtypes and cognitive function was examined. Compared to sMCI, the pMCI patients exhibited decreased FC between the left dorsal-rostral putamen and right middle temporal gyrus, the right dorsal caudate and right inferior temporal gyrus, and the left dorsal-rostral putamen and left superior frontal gyrus. Additionally, the altered FC between the right inferior temporal gyrus and right putamen was significantly associated with episodic memory and executive function. Our study revealed common and distinct cortico-striatal FC changes in sMCIs and pMCI across different seeds; these changes were associated with cognitive function. These findings can help us understand the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of MCI and distinguish pMCI and sMCI in the early stage potentially.

Fatigue and perceived energy in a sample of older adults over 10 years: A resting state functional connectivity study of neural correlates

PurposeDeclining energy and increasing fatigue, common in older age, predict neurodegenerative conditions, but their neural substrates are not known. We examined brain resting state connectivity in relation to declining self-reported energy levels (SEL) and occurrence of fatigue over time. MethodsWe examined resting-state functional MRI in 272 community dwelling older adults participating in the Health Aging and Body Composition Study (mean age 83 years; 57.4 % female; 40.8 % Black) with measures of fatigue and SEL collected at regular intervals over the prior ten years. Functional connectivity (FC) between cortex and striatum was examined separately for sensorimotor, executive, and limbic functional subregions. Logistic regression tested the association of FC in each network with prior fatigue state (reporting fatigue at least once or never reporting fatigue), and with SEL decline (divided into stable or declining SEL groups) and adjusted for demographic, physical function, mood, cognition, and comorbidities. ResultsHigher cortico-striatal FC in the right limbic network was associated with lower odds of reporting fatigue (better) at least once during the study period (adjusted odds ratio [95 % confidence interval], p-value: (0.747 [0.582, 0.955], 0.020), independent of SEL. Higher cortico-striatal FC in the right executive network was associated with higher odds of declining SEL (worse) during the study period (adjusted odds ratio [95 % confidence interval], p-value: (1.31 [1.01, 1.69], 0.041), independent of fatigue. Associations with other networks were not significant. ConclusionsIn this cohort of older adults, the cortico-striatal functional connectivity of declining SEL appears distinct from that underlying fatigue. Studies to further assess the neural correlates of energy and fatigue, and their independent contribution to neurodegenerative conditions are warranted.

Cortico-striatal gamma oscillations are modulated by dopamine D3 receptors in dyskinetic rats.

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202504000-00031/figure1/v/2024-07-06T104127Z/r/image-tiff Long-term levodopa administration can lead to the development of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Gamma oscillations are a widely recognized hallmark of abnormal neural electrical activity in levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Currently, studies have reported increased oscillation power in cases of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. However, little is known about how the other electrophysiological parameters of gamma oscillations are altered in levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Furthermore, the role of the dopamine D3 receptor, which is implicated in levodopa-induced dyskinesia, in movement disorder-related changes in neural oscillations is unclear. We found that the cortico-striatal functional connectivity of beta oscillations was enhanced in a model of Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, levodopa application enhanced cortical gamma oscillations in cortico-striatal projections and cortical gamma aperiodic components, as well as bidirectional primary motor cortex (M1) ↔ dorsolateral striatum gamma flow. Administration of PD128907 (a selective dopamine D3 receptor agonist) induced dyskinesia and excessive gamma oscillations with a bidirectional M1 ↔ dorsolateral striatum flow. However, administration of PG01037 (a selective dopamine D3 receptor antagonist) attenuated dyskinesia, suppressed gamma oscillations and cortical gamma aperiodic components, and decreased gamma causality in the M1 → dorsolateral striatum direction. These findings suggest that the dopamine D3 receptor plays a role in dyskinesia-related oscillatory activity, and that it has potential as a therapeutic target for levodopa-induced dyskinesia.

Biphasic patterns of age-related differences in dopamine D1 receptors across the adult lifespan

Age-related alterations in D1-like dopamine receptor (D1DR) have distinct implications for human cognition and behavior during development and aging, but the timing of these periods remains undefined. Enabled by a large sample of invivo assessments (n= 180, age 20 to 80 years of age, 50% female), we discover that age-related D1DR differences pivot at approximately 40 years of age in several brain regions. Focusing on the most age-sensitive dopamine-rich region, we observe opposing pre- and post-forties interrelations among caudate D1DR, cortico-striatal functional connectivity, and memory. Finally, particularly caudate D1DR differences in midlife and beyond, but not in early adulthood, associate with manifestation of white matter lesions. The present results support a model by which excessive dopamine modulation in early adulthood and insufficient modulation in aging are deleterious to brain function and cognition, thus challenging a prevailing view of monotonic D1DR function across the adult lifespan.

Fronto-striatal dynamic connectivity is linked to dopaminergic motor response in Parkinson's disease

IntroductionDifferences in dopaminergic motor response in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients can be related to PD subtypes, and previous fMRI studies associated dopaminergic motor response with corticostriatal functional connectivity. While traditional fMRI analyses have assessed the mean connectivity between regions of interest, an important aspect driving dopaminergic response might lie in the temporal dynamics in corticostriatal connections. MethodsThis study aims to determine if altered resting-state dynamic functional network connectivity (DFC) is associated with dopaminergic motor response. To test this, static and DFC were assessed in 32 PD patients and 18 healthy controls (HC). Patients were grouped as low and high responders using a median split of their dopaminergic motor response. ResultsPatients featuring a high dopaminergic motor response were observed to spend more time in a regionally integrated state compared to HC. Furthermore, DFC between the anterior midcingulate cortex/dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (aMCC/dACC) and putamen was lower in low responders during a more segregated state and correlated with dopaminergic motor response. ConclusionThe findings of this study revealed that temporal dynamics of fronto-striatal connectivity are associated with clinically relevant information, which may be considered when assessing functional connectivity between regions involved in motor initiation.

Neural bases of reward anticipation in healthy individuals with low, mid, and high levels of schizotypy

A growing body of research has placed the ventral striatum at the center of a network of cerebral regions involved in anticipating rewards in healthy controls. However, little is known about the functional connectivity of the ventral striatum associated with reward anticipation in healthy controls. In addition, few studies have investigated reward anticipation in healthy humans with different levels of schizotypy. Here, we investigated reward anticipation in eighty-four healthy individuals (44 females) recruited based on their schizotypy scores. Participants performed a variant of the Monetary Incentive Delay Task while undergoing event-related fMRI.Participants showed the expected decrease in response times for highly rewarded trials compared to non-rewarded trials. Whole-brain activation analyses replicated previous results, including activity in the ventral and dorsal striatum. Whole-brain psycho-physiological interaction analyses of the left and right ventral striatum revealed increased connectivity during reward anticipation with widespread regions in frontal, parietal and occipital cortex as well as the cerebellum and midbrain. Finally, we found no association between schizotypal personality severity and neural activity and cortico-striatal functional connectivity. In line with the motivational, attentional, and motor functions of rewards, our data reveal multifaceted cortico-striatal networks taking part in reward anticipation in healthy individuals. The ventral striatum is connected to regions of the salience, attentional, motor and visual networks during reward anticipation and thereby in a position to orchestrate optimal goal-directed behavior.

Thalamo-cortical and cerebello-cortical functional connectivity in development.

The thalamus is a critical relay center for neural pathways involving sensory, motor, and cognitive functions, including cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical and cortico-ponto-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loops. Despite the importance of these circuits, their development has been understudied. One way to investigate these pathways in human development in vivo is with functional connectivity MRI, yet few studies have examined thalamo-cortical and cerebello-cortical functional connectivity in development. Here, we used resting-state functional connectivity to measure functional connectivity in the thalamus and cerebellum with previously defined cortical functional networks in 2 separate data sets of children (7-12years old) and adults (19-40years old). In both data sets, we found stronger functional connectivity between the ventral thalamus and the somatomotor face cortical functional network in children compared with adults, extending previous cortico-striatal functional connectivity findings. In addition, there was more cortical network integration (i.e. strongest functional connectivity with multiple networks) in the thalamus in children than in adults. We found no developmental differences in cerebello-cortical functional connectivity. Together, these results suggest different maturation patterns in cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical and cortico-ponto-cerebellar-thalamo-cortical pathways.

Cortico-striatal networking deficits associated with advanced HIV disease and cocaine use.

Cocaine use is disproportionately prevalent in people with HIV (PWH) and is known to potentiate HIV neuropathogenesis. As both HIV and cocaine have well-documented cortico-striatal effects, PWH who use cocaine and have a history of immunosuppression may exhibit greater FC deficits compared to PWH without these conditions. However, research investigating the legacy effects of HIV immunosuppression (i.e., a history of AIDS) on cortico-striatal functional connectivity (FC) in adults with and without cocaine use is sparse. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and neuropsychological assessment data from 273 adults were analyzed to examine FC in relation to HIV disease: HIV-negative (n = 104), HIV-positive with nadir CD4 ≥ 200 (n = 96), HIV-positive with nadir CD4 < 200 (AIDS; n = 73), and cocaine use (83 COC and 190 NON). Using independent component analysis/dual regression, FC was assessed between the basal ganglia network (BGN) and five cortical networks: dorsal attention network (DAN), default mode network, left executive network, right executive network, and salience network. There were significant interaction effects such that AIDS-related BGN-DAN FC deficits emerged in COC but not in NON participants. Independent of HIV, cocaine effects emerged in FC between the BGN and executive networks. Disruption of BGN-DAN FC in AIDS/COC participants is consistent with cocaine potentiation of neuro-inflammation and may be indicative of legacy HIV immunosuppressive effects. The current study bolsters previous findings linking HIV and cocaine use with cortico-striatal networking deficits. Future research should consider the effects of the duration of HIV immunosuppression and early treatment initiation.

Sex-dependent effects of early life stress on reinforcement learning and limbic cortico-striatal functional connectivity

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a stress-related condition hypothesized to involve aberrant reinforcement learning (RL) with positive and negative stimuli. The present study investigated whether repeated early maternal separation (REMS) stress, a procedure widely recognized to cause depression-like behaviour, affects how subjects learn from positive and negative feedback. The REMS procedure was implemented by separating male and female rats from their dam for 6 h each day from post-natal day 5–19. Control rat offspring were left undisturbed during this period. Rats were tested as adults for behavioral flexibility and feedback sensitivity on a probabilistic reversal learning task. A computational approach based on RL theory was used to derive latent behavioral variables related to reward learning and flexibility. To assess underlying brain substrates, a seed-based functional MRI connectivity analysis was applied both before and after an additional adulthood stressor in control and REMS rats. Female but not male rats exposed to REMS stress showed increased response ‘stickiness’ (repeated responses regardless of reward outcome). Following repeated adulthood stress, reduced functional connectivity from the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), cingulate cortex (Cg), and anterior insula (AI) cortex was observed in females. By contrast, control male rats exposed to the second stressor showed impaired learning from negative feedback (i.e., non-reward) and reduced functional connectivity from the BLA to the DLS and AI compared to maternally separated males. RL in male rats exposed to REMS was unaffected. The fMRI data further revealed that connectivity between the mOFC and other prefrontal cortical and subcortical structures was positively correlated with response ‘stickiness’. These findings reveal differences in how females and males respond to early life adversity and subsequent stress. These effects may be mediated by functional divergence in resting-state connectivity between the basolateral amygdala and fronto-striatal brain regions.

Preserved Motility after Neonatal Dopaminergic Lesion Relates to Hyperexcitability of Direct Pathway Medium Spiny Neurons.

In Parkinson's disease patients and rodent models, dopaminergic neuron loss (DAN) results in severe motor disabilities. In contrast, general motility is preserved after early postnatal DAN loss in rodents. Here we used mice of both sexes to show that the preserved motility observed after early DAN loss depends on functional changes taking place in medium spiny neurons (MSN) of the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) that belong to the direct pathway (dMSN). Previous animal model studies showed that adult loss of dopaminergic input depresses dMSN response to cortical input, which likely contributes to Parkinson's disease motor impairments. However, the response of DMS-dMSN to their preferred medial PFC input is preserved after neonatal DAN loss as shown by in vivo studies. Moreover, their response to inputs from adjacent cortical areas is increased, resulting in reduced cortical inputs selectivity. Additional ex vivo studies show that membrane excitability increases in dMSN. Furthermore, chemogenetic inhibition of DMS-dMSN has a more marked inhibitory effect on general motility in lesioned mice than in their control littermates, indicating that expression of normal levels of locomotion and general motility depend on dMSN activity after early DAN loss. Contrastingly, DMS-dMSN inhibition did not ameliorate a characteristic phenotype of the DAN-lesioned animals in a marble burying task demanding higher behavioral control. Thus, increased dMSN excitability likely promoting changes in corticostriatal functional connectivity may contribute to the distinctive behavioral phenotype emerging after developmental DAN loss, with implications for our understanding of the age-dependent effects of forebrain dopamine depletion and neurodevelopment disorders.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The loss of striatal dopamine in the adult brain leads to life-threatening motor impairments. However, general motility remains largely unaffected after its early postnatal loss. Here, we show that the high responsiveness to cortical input of striatal neurons belonging to the direct basal ganglia pathway, crucial for proper motor functioning, is preserved after early dopamine neuron loss, in parallel with an increase in these cells' membrane excitability. Chemogenetic inhibition studies show that the preserved motility depends on this direct pathway hyperexcitability/hyperconnectivity, while other phenotypes characteristic of this condition remained unaltered despite the dMSN inhibition. This insight has implications for our understanding of the mechanism underlying the behavioral impairments observed in neuropsychiatric conditions linked to early dopaminergic hypofunction.

Changes in corticostriatal connectivity and striatal tissue iron associated with efficacy of clozapine for treatment‑resistantschizophrenia.

RationaleThough numerous studies demonstrate the superiority of clozapine (CLZ) for treatment of persistent psychotic symptoms that are characteristic of treatment-refractory schizophrenia (TRS), what remains unknown are the neural and molecular mechanisms underlying CLZ’s efficacy. Recent work implicates increased corticostriatal functional connectivity as a marker of response to non-CLZ, dopamine (DA) D2-receptor blocking antipsychotic drugs. However, it is undetermined whether this connectivity finding also relates to CLZ’s unique efficacy, or if response to CLZ is associated with changes in striatal DA functioning.ObjectiveIn a cohort of 22 individuals with TRS, we examined response to CLZ in relation to the following: (1) change in corticostriatal functional connectivity; and (2) change in a magnetic resonance-based measure of striatal tissue iron (R2’), which demonstrates utility as a proxy measure for elements of DA functioning.MethodsParticipants underwent scanning while starting CLZ and after 12 weeks of CLZ treatment. We used both cortical and striatal regions of interest to examine changes in corticostriatal interactions and striatal R2’ in relation to CLZ response (% reduction of psychotic symptoms).ResultsWe first found that response to CLZ was associated with an increase in corticostriatal connectivity between the dorsal caudate and regions of the frontoparietal network (P < 0.05, corrected). Secondly, we observed no significant changes in striatal R2’ across CLZ treatment.ConclusionOverall, these results indicate that changes in corticostriatal networks without gross shifts in striatal DA functioning underlies CLZ response. Our results provide novel mechanistic insight into response to CLZ treatment.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00213-022-06138-0.

Frontal corticostriatal functional connectivity reveals task positive and negative network dysregulation in relation to ADHD, sex, and inhibitory control

Frontal corticostriatal circuits (FCSC) are involved in self-regulation of cognition, emotion, and motor function. While these circuits are implicated in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the literature establishing FCSC associations with ADHD is inconsistent. This may be due to study variability in considerations of how fMRI motion regression was handled between groups, or study specific differences in age, sex, or the striatal subregions under investigation. Given the importance of these domains in ADHD it is crucial to consider the complex interactions of age, sex, striatal subregions and FCSC in ADHD presentation and diagnosis. In this large-scale study of 362 8–12 year-old children with ADHD (n = 165) and typically developing (TD; n = 197) children, we investigate associations between FCSC with ADHD diagnosis and symptoms, sex, and go/no-go (GNG) task performance. Results include: (1) increased striatal connectivity with age across striatal subregions with most of the frontal cortex, (2) increased frontal-limbic striatum connectivity among boys with ADHD only, mostly in default mode network (DMN) regions not associated with age, and (3) increased frontal-motor striatum connectivity to regions of the DMN were associated with greater parent-rated inattention problems, particularly among the ADHD group. Although diagnostic group differences were no longer significant when strictly controlling for head motion, with motion possibly reflecting the phenotypic variance of ADHD itself, the spatial distribution of all symptom, age, sex, and other ADHD group effects were nearly identical to the initial results. These results demonstrate differential associations of FCSC between striatal subregions with the DMN and FPN in relation to age, ADHD, sex, and inhibitory control.

There is a topographic organization in human cortico-pontine connectivity.

Of the three largest outputs of the cerebral cortex, two have been extensively studied and mapped. Topographic maps of cortico-thalamic and cortico-striatal functional connectivity in humans are well established. However, for the third largest cerebral output, to the pontine nuclei, which connect the cerebrum to the cerebellum, the existence of such an organized connectivity pattern in humans is unknown. Here, using high-resolution functional MRI and a large sample size, we found a topographically organized pattern of functional connectivity between the human cerebral cortex and pons. Our results indicate a rostral-caudal topography; rostral (frontal) cerebral cortex shows connectivity to the rostral pons, and the more caudal cortical areas (i.e. the sensorimotor cortices) show functional connectivity more caudally in the pons, with the occipital lobe connectivity being most caudal. While prefrontal, sensorimotor and occipital cortices have a connectivity to the medial pontine nuclei, posterior parietal cortex and temporal lobe correlate with lateral pontine nuclei. Topography is sufficiently detailed to identify distinct connectivity for leg, trunk, hand and face areas of the motor cortex. These findings reveal the existence of a topographic organization in human cortico-pontine connectivity and provide the topographic map for future studies of cortico-ponto-cerebellum pathway in a variety of disorders.

Increased ventral striatal functional connectivity in patients with schizophrenia during reward anticipation

BackgroundGrowing evidence points towards dysfunction of the ventral striatum as a neural substrate of motivational impairments in schizophrenia. Ventral striatal activity during reward anticipation is generally reduced in patients with schizophrenia and specifically correlates with apathy. However, little is known about the cortico-striatal functional connectivity in patients with schizophrenia during reward anticipation and its relation to negative symptoms. ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to identify categorical group differences in ventral striatal functional connectivity during reward anticipation between patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls, and dimensional associations between cortico-striatal functional connectivity and negative symptom severity. MethodA total of 40 patients with schizophrenia (10 females) and 33 healthy controls (8 females) were included from two previously published studies. All participants performed a variant of the Monetary Incentive Delay Task while undergoing event-related fMRI. Functional connectivity was assessed using psychophysical interactions (PPI) with the left and right ventral striatum as seeds and the contrast [High Reward Anticipation – No Reward Anticipation]. Negative symptoms were assessed using the Brief Negative Symptom Scale. ResultsCompared to controls, patients with schizophrenia showed increased functional connectivity between the left ventral striatum and the left precuneus and right parahippocampal gyrus, two hubs of the default mode network (cluster-level threshold: FWE, p < .05). In addition, we found a negative association between apathy scores on the BNSS and increased functional connectivity between the left ventral striatum and the left ventral anterior insula / putamen and the left inferior frontal gyrus / dorsal anterior insula (cluster-level threshold: FWE, p < .05). ConclusionsOur results indicate that the patterns of increased functional connectivity between the ventral striatum and the dorsal default mode network during reward anticipation could act as a compensatory mechanism to regulate the activity of the ventral striatum. Our results also showed that functional connectivity patterns from the ventral striatum, much like its local activity, is specifically related to apathy, and not diminished expression.

Temporal effort discount of reinforcement and related cortico-striatal functional connectivity

Temporal effort discount of reinforcement and related cortico-striatal functional connectivity

Cognitive Fatigue Alters Cortico-Striatal Functional Connectivity During Feedback-Based Learning in Multiple Sclerosis

Cognitive Fatigue Alters Cortico-Striatal Functional Connectivity During Feedback-Based Learning in Multiple Sclerosis

Cortico-Striatal Functional Connectivity Reflects Changes in Subjective Energy and Tiredness

Subjective feelings of energy and tiredness may reflect different neural processes. Functional connectivity (FC) was measured in 272 HealthABC participants via resting state functional MRI in striatal-associative, striatal-limbic and striatal-sensorimotor networks. Subjective energy level (scored 1-10) and tiredness (tired/not-tired) during the prior month were collected via self-report from year 2 to year 10 (mean energy follow-up=8 years, tiredness follow-up=7 years). Participants who never reported being tired during follow-up (N=119) had significantly lower FC in the striatal-limbic network (mean difference [95%CI]: -0.055 [-0.1020,-0.00879], p=0.02). Participants with stable energy level over time (N=94, defined as decline <1.0 SD below the mean) had significantly higher FC in the striatal-associative network (mean difference [95% CI]: 0.041 [0.00192,0.0807], p=0.04). Associations were similar when adjusted for brain atrophy, demographics, and education. Although based on subjective measures, the distinct spatial patterns of these associations support our hypothesis that neural basis of energy and fatigue may differ.

Mild Parkinsonian Signs Are Related to Lower Cortico-Striatal Connectivity in Executive Networks

Mild Parkinsonian signs (MPS) affect up to 24% of community-dwelling older adults. We hypothesize that MPS are associated with Parkinson’s-like alterations of functional connectivity (FC) in sensorimotor, executive, and reward cortico-striatal networks. Participants (N=266; mean age=83; 57% female) without Parkinson’s completed resting-state fMRI and Unified Parkinsonian Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). FC between striatum and cortex was measured within each network. Logistic regression tested associations of each network’s FC with MPS (UPDRS>0), adjusted for MPS risk factors, then including white matter hyperintensities (WMH). MPS was associated with lower cortical-striatal FC in the left executive cortico-striatal network (OR [95%CI]: 0.188 [0.043,0.824]). Association survived adjusting for risk factors (0.162 [0.030,0.874]) but was attenuated after including WMH (0.209 [0.036, 1.200]). In stratified analyses, left executive cortico-striatal FC was associated with MPS only for those with higher WMH (0.077 [0.010,0.599]). Future work should examine whether higher FC protects against the influence of WMH on MPS.

Coupling between motor cortex and striatum increases during sleep over long-term skill learning.

The strength of cortical connectivity to the striatum influences the balance between behavioral variability and stability. Learning to consistently produce a skilled action requires plasticity in corticostriatal connectivity associated with repeated training of the action. However, it remains unknown whether such corticostriatal plasticity occurs during training itself or 'offline' during time away from training, such as sleep. Here, we monitor the corticostriatal network throughout long-term skill learning in rats and find that non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep is a relevant period for corticostriatal plasticity. We first show that the offline activation of striatal NMDA receptors is required for skill learning. We then show that corticostriatal functional connectivity increases offline, coupled to emerging consistent skilled movements, and coupled cross-area neural dynamics. We then identify NREM sleep spindles as uniquely poised to mediate corticostriatal plasticity, through interactions with slow oscillations. Our results provide evidence that sleep shapes cross-area coupling required for skill learning.