Correct Responding Research Articles

The role of the amygdala and rostral anterior cingulate in encoding expected outcomes during learning

Successful passive avoidance learning is thought to require the use of learned stimulus-reinforcement associations to guide decision making [Baxter, M.G., Murray, E.A., 2002. The amygdala and reward. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3, 563–573]. The current experiment investigated the neural correlates of successful passive avoidance learning in 19 healthy adults. Behaviorally, subjects showed a distinct pattern of performance: early indiscriminate responding to stimuli (pre-criterion performance), followed by relatively rapid learning before a plateau of successful performance (post-criterion performance). Neural responses to post-criterion correct responses were compared with neural responses to both incorrect responses and pre-criterion correct responses. Post-criterion correct responding was associated with increased activation in regions including rostral anterior cingulate, insula, caudate, hippocampal regions, and the amygdala.

Unpriming: The Deactivation of Thoughts Through Expression.

Unpriming is a decrease in the influence of primed knowledge following a behavior expressing that knowledge. The authors investigated strategies for unpriming the knowledge of an answer that is activated when people are asked to consider a simple question. Experiment 1 found that prior correct answering eliminated the bias people normally show toward correct responding when asked to answer yes-no questions randomly. Experiment 2 revealed that prior answering intended to be random did not unprime knowledge on subsequent attempts to answer randomly. Experiment 3 found that exposure to the correct answer did not influence the knowledge bias but that exposure to the incorrect answer increased bias. Experiment 4 revealed that merely expressing the answer for oneself was sufficient to unprime knowledge. Experiment 5 found that each item of activated knowledge needs to be unprimed specifically, in that correctly answering 1 question does not reduce the knowledge bias in randomly answering another.

Working Memory Capacity and a Notorious Brain Teaser

The Monty Hall Dilemma (MHD) is an intriguing example of the discrepancy between people's intuitions and normative reasoning. This study examines whether the notorious difficulty of the MHD is associated with limitations in working memory resources. Experiment 1 and 2 examined the link between MHD reasoning and working memory capacity. Experiment 3 tested the role of working memory experimentally by burdening the executive resources with a secondary task. Results showed that participants who solved the MHD correctly had a significantly higher working memory capacity than erroneous responders. Correct responding also decreased under secondary task load. Findings indicate that working memory capacity plays a key role in overcoming salient intuitions and selecting the correct switching response during MHD reasoning.

Using stimulus variation to increase reinforcer efficacy of low preference stimuli

Recent research findings suggest that low preference stimuli can be effective reinforcers. This study compared responding to high preference and low preference stimuli under continuous reinforcement. Results demonstrated that responding was greater when a high preference stimulus was presented. Other research findings suggest that stimulus variation increases the potency of reinforcers perceived to be of high preference. This study extended this line of research by evaluating whether stimulus variation would increase the potency of low preference stimuli. Results demonstrated that when three low preference stimuli were presented in a varied fashion, responding corresponded with the levels obtained when a high preference stimulus was presented. Furthermore, a varied reinforcer presentation of low preference stimuli was found to increase and maintain high percentages of correct responding and ontask behavior to levels equal to those obtained with a high preference stimulus during a discrete trial preparation. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Efficacy of Error for the Correction of Initially Incorrect Assumptions and of Feedback for the Affirmation of Correct Responding: Learning in the Classroom

Participants completed 5 classroom examinations during which the timing of knowledge of results (no feedback: Scantron form; delayed feedback: end-of-test, 24 hour delay; immediate feedback: educator, response form) and iterative responding (1 response, up to 4 responses) were manipulated. At the end of the semester, each participant completed a 100-item final examination which included 10 items randomly selected from each classroom examination, plus 50 entirely new items. Neither the source of feedback nor the number of responses permitted influenced performance on classroom examinations but both factors interacted significantly to enhance the final examination performance of participants provided with immediate feedback and iterative responding. The correction of initially inaccurate strategies by combining immediate feedback with iterative responding was not differentially effective as a function of information source: educator or the Immediate Feedback Assessment Technique (IF AT) form. For these participants, response identification accuracy, confidence ratings, and retention were higher and inaccurate perseverative responding was lower. Performance on the final examination permits the preliminary quantification of how immediate feedback coupled with iterative responding, when used during classroom examinations that contain items that will be repeated on a cumulative final examination, not only assesses student knowledge but also teaches in a manner that promotes the retention of course materials.

Visual discrimination learning in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Three experiments demonstrated visual discrimination learning in zebrafish (Danio rerio). In each experiment, zebrafish were given a choice between two visually distinct arms of a T-maze. Choice of one stimulus was always followed by a food reward, but choice of the other stimulus was not rewarded. Different colored sleeves fitted around the arms of the T-maze were used in Experiments 1 (green and purple) and 2 (red and blue). The stimuli used in Experiment 3 were white sleeves lined with horizontal or vertical black stripes. In all three experiments, zebrafish acquired a significant preference for the stimulus that led to a food reward. Experiments 1 and 2 also showed that zebrafish could learn a reversal of the discrimination. Finally, the effect of discontinuing food rewards was examined after reversal training in Experiment 2 and after initial discrimination training in Experiments 1 and 3. Non-reinforcement led to a decrease in correct responding in Experiments 2 and 3 independent of stimulus identity, but to an asymmetrical pattern of responding in Experiment 1. The median latency to make a choice response decreased over the course of acquisition in all three experiments; during extinction, median response times did not change at all in Experiment 1 and increased only very slightly in Experiment 2, but showed a substantial increase in Experiment 3. The implications of these results for the zebrafish as a model system for genetic studies of learning and memory are discussed.

A model for problem solving in discrete trial training for children with autism.

Discrete trial training (DTT) is a well-established intervention for teaching skills to children with autism; however, few published guidelines are available for determining whether a child’s rate of learning a particular skill is satisfactory and, if not, what to do. We assert that progress within 8-10 teaching sessions usually is evidence of satisfactory skill acquisition, whereas absence of progress within this time frame indicates a need to consider modifying or stopping instruction of that skill. Absence of progress may involve (a) consistently low rates of correct responding, (b) variable performance across sessions, (c) increases in problem behavior (often in conjunction with low or variable rates of correct responding), or (d) limited generalization of the skill outside intervention. Likely reasons for each of these patterns are described, and decision flowcharts for identifying possible solutions are outlined. When implemented with supervision from a qualified professional, these flowcharts may facilitate systematic problem solving.

Replacing the Echolalia of Children With Autism With Functional Use of Verbal Labeling

We evaluated the direct and generalized effects of cues-pause-point language training procedures on immediate echolalia and correct responding in two children with autism. The overall goal was to teach the children to remain quiet before, during, and briefly after the presentation of questions and then to verbalize on the basis of the cues (pictures) whose labels represented the correct responses. A multiple baseline design across question/response pairs demonstrated that echolalia was rapidly replaced by correct responding on the trained stimuli and there were clear improvements in one child’s responding to untrained stimuli. These results replicate and extend previous research with adults with mental retardation and autism which demonstrated that cues-pause-point procedures can be effective in teaching individuals displaying echolalia to use their verbal labeling repertoires functionally.

The effects of changes in consequences on hens’ performance in delayed-matching-to-sample tasks

A delayed-matching-to-sample (DMTS) task was used to investigate remembering with domestic hens. In Conditions 1 and 3 of Experiment 1, six hens responded under a mixed-delay procedure with delays of 0.25, 2, and 8 s. In Condition 2, the reinforcer for correct responding was delayed for 6 s after each correct matching response on 2-s delay trials. In Condition 1, discrimination performance decreased monotonically over the three delays. With the delay to the reinforcer, the decreases were non-monotonic as a result of the considerable drop in the accuracy of discrimination on the 2-s delay trials. Performance at the 2-s delay did not recover completely in Condition 3. In Conditions 1 and 3 of Experiment 2, five hens responded under a mixed-delay procedure with delays of 0, 4, and 16 s. In Condition 2 no reinforcers were provided for correct responding on 0- and 16-s delay trials. When reinforcers were available on all trials discrimination performance decreased monotonically with delay. There were non-monotonic changes in discrimination with delay when there was extinction at two delays resulting mainly from a large drop in discrimination performance at 0 s. In addition, response latencies increased markedly at the two delays associated with extinction. Performance recovered completely in Condition 3. The data support the ideas that remembering involves a temporal discrimination that the effects of delaying reinforcement and removing reinforcement may differ, and that the measurement of response latencies may be a useful tool in DMTS procedures.

Physiological and Neurocognitive Correlates of Adaptive Behavior in Preschool Among Children in Head Start

This study examined physiological and neurocognitive correlates of teacherreported adaptive behavior in preschool among children in Head Start. Child physiology was assessed by cardiac vagal tone and was measured during a baseline period and during the administration of a mildly effortful cognitive task. Neurocognitive function was measured using two tasks of executive function, which require children to inhibit a prepotent response, while remembering and executing the rule for correct responding. Parents reported on aspects of child negative emotionality associated with fear and anger. Information on child receptive language ability was also collected. Although correlates of teacher-reported social competence and on-task behavior were expected to be similar, some evidence for differentiation was obtained. Results indicated that higher resting vagal tone, vagal increase during the administration of the cognitive task, and higher levels of fearful emotionality were related to higher ratings of social competence, after adjusting for levels of on-task behavior. In contrast, lower resting vagal tone, vagal suppression in response to the cognitive task, and higher levels of executive function were associated with higher teacher ratings of on-task behavior, adjusted for social competence. Implications are considered of findings for developmental relations between social and academic competence and adaptation to preschool among children in Head Start.

Effects on weight change of switching from olanzapine to quetiapine

Rats were trained to discriminate the stimulus properties of 1 mg/kg of d-amphetamine sulphate (AMPH) from saline in a two-lever task in which correct responding was reinforced with water under a fixed ratio (FR 32) schedule. Classical antipsychotic drugs from different chemical classes were all able to block the AMPH cue. Doses (mg/kg) inhibiting the cueing effect to 50% (ID50) were 0.035 (haloperidol), 0.04 (spiroperidol), 0.09 (cis(Z)-flupenthixol), 0.12 (trifluperazine), 0.15 (perphenazine), 0.92 (chlorpromazine) and 1.40 (pimozide). The AMPH cue was also antagonized by antipsychotic drugs that are considered atypical due to their relative lack of activity in conventional animal models or inability to produce extrapyramidal symptoms in the clinic. The following ID50 values were obtained: 0.88 (molindone), 1.22 (clozapine), 5.48 (metoclopramide), 15.4 (thioridazine) and 52.8 ((−)-sulpiride). In addition, the AMPH cue was blocked by the D-1 selective dopamine (DA) antagonist, SCH 23390 (ID50 = 0.014 mg/kg). The abilities of these drugs to block the AMPH cue were unrelated to the drugs' effect upon the rate of responding. For example, some drugs (e.g. haloperidol, spiroperidol and SCH 23390) blocked the AMPH cue completely without any effect on the response rate. Furthermore, the non-antipsychotic phenothiazine promethazine (2.5–12.5 mg/kg) failed to affect the AMPH cue although the drug strongly suppressed the response rate. However, the potent DA agonists, apomorphine (0.05–0.33 mg/kg) and lisuride (0.02–0.08 mg/kg), and the DA and norepinephrine agonist, DPI (0.4 and 0.8 mg/kg), did not mimic the AMPH cue or did so only partially. These results suggest that the 1 mg/kg AMPH cue depends on (DA) systems other than those involved in the stereotyped motor behavior commonly produced by high doses of AMPH or DA agonists. Low-dose AMPH discrimination may thus serve as a new model for studying antipsychotic drug action.

Effects of Curricular and Materials Modifications on Academic Performance and Task Engagement of Three Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

Effects of two curricular and materials modifications on the on-task behavior and correct academic responding of three elementary-aged students identified with emotional or behavioral disorders (E/BD) were evaluated in two separate studies. In the first study, an ABA design revealed little difference in the students’ correct responding or on-task behavior when a function (writing a letter) was provided for written assignments. When a model for correct responding was added to the conditions, correct responding and on-task behavior increased for all students in both the functional and nonfunctional activities. In the second study, a multiple-baseline-across-students revealed only limited positive effects for on-task behavior when arithmetic assignments were shortened; effects were enhanced for two of the students when a model for correct responding was added to the shortened assignment modification. Results are discussed in terms of continuing research needed in the area of curricular and materials modifications for students with E/BD.

Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in young children: relations with self-regulation and adaptation to preschool in children attending Head Start.

We examine a parent-report version of the measure of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation of Carver and White (1994), the BIS/BAS scales. Participants included 42 children (mean age = 4 years, 9 months) attending Head Start programs. Information was collected on aspects of physiological and cognitive regulation, temperamental emotionality, BIS/BAS sensitivity, and teacher report of social competence and on-task behavior in the classroom. Physiological regulation was assessed by cardiac vagal tone and was measured during a baseline period and during the administration of a mildly effortful cognitive task. Cognitive regulation was assessed by executive function and was measured using two tasks that require children to inhibit a prepotent response while remembering and executing the rule for correct responding. Parents reported on behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation and aspects of child negative emotionality associated with fear and anger. Results indicated that the BIS scale was positively related to teacher reported social competence but negatively related to on-task behavior. Associations between the BIS and each of the outcome variables were independent of relations of physiological and cognitive regulation to outcomes and were present when relations between fearful emotionality and the outcomes were not. No relations were observed between any of the BAS scales and the outcome measures. Results recommend the application of neurobiological and psychophysiological approaches to the study of children's adaptation to preschool.

Toward a unified theory of decision criterion learning in perceptual categorization.

Optimal decision criterion placement maximizes expected reward and requires sensitivity to the category base rates (prior probabilities) and payoffs (costs and benefits of incorrect and correct responding). When base rates are unequal, human decision criterion is nearly optimal, but when payoffs are unequal, suboptimal decision criterion placement is observed, even when the optimal decision criterion is identical in both cases. A series of studies are reviewed that examine the generality of this finding, and a unified theory of decision criterion learning is described (Maddox & Dodd, 2001). The theory assumes that two critical mechanisms operate in decision criterion learning. One mechanism involves competition between reward and accuracy maximization: The observer attempts to maximize reward, as instructed, but also places some importance on accuracy maximization. The second mechanism involves a flat-maxima hypothesis that assumes that the observer's estimate of the reward-maximizing decision criterion is determined from the steepness of the objective reward function that relates expected reward to decision criterion placement. Experiments used to develop and test the theory require each observer to complete a large number of trials and to participate in all conditions of the experiment. This provides maximal control over the reinforcement history of the observer and allows a focus on individual behavioral profiles. The theory is applied to decision criterion learning problems that examine category discriminability, payoff matrix multiplication and addition effects, the optimal classifier's independence assumption, and different types of trial-by-trial feedback. In every case the theory provides a good account of the data, and, most important, provides useful insights into the psychological processes involved in decision criterion learning.

Comparison of the Effects of Spanish and English Constant Time Delay Instruction on Sight Word Reading by Hispanic Learners with Mental Retardation

This study investigated the effectiveness and efficiency of a 4-second time delay instructional package and language of instruction with regard to the percentage correct of English sight words and incidental information by 4 Puerto Rican middle school students with mental retardation. A multiple probe across students with a parallel treatments design that compared Spanish and English constant time delay intervention conditions was employed to teach sight words from local grocery and department stores. Incidental information was provided contingent on correct responding during intervention. Results indicated that both Spanish and English time delay conditions were equally effective and efficient when compared with a no-treatment condition in promoting English sight word reading for 3 of the 4 participants, whereas Spanish time delay was seen to be more effective and efficient than English time delay and no-treatment conditions for the other participant. All 4 participants generalized word reading from the classroom to the natural setting (i.e., stores in the community) and learned most of the incidental information. Implications for practice and directions for future research with respect to language of instruction are discussed.

The effects of simultaneous prompting on teaching receptively identifying occupations from picture cards

A multiple probe across subjects design was used to examine whether or not the use of simultaneous prompting procedure would result in an increase on the percentage of correct responding of receptively identifying occupations from picture cards. Maintenance and generalization effects of simultaneous prompting were also investigated. Five occupations were taught to each subject. Black and white picture cards were used to explain occupations during full and daily probe, instructional and maintenance probe sessions. Colored picture cards were used during generalization sessions and generalization probe was assessed before and after instruction. Maintenance sessions were conducted 1, 2, and 4 weeks after the instruction. Maintenance and generalization probe sessions were conducted just like full probe sessions. Fifteen trials were used during full and maintenance probe sessions and 10 trials during daily probe, instructional, and generalization probe sessions. Correct responses resulted in reinforcement in all sessions whereas incorrect responses resulted with error correction during instructional sessions and ignorance during daily, full, maintenance, and generalization probe sessions. Simultaneous prompting was effective for teaching receptively identifying occupations form picture cards. Maintenance and generalization effects of simultaneous prompting were also positive. Future research is needed to extend the current literature about simultaneous prompting.

The effects of antiepileptic drugs on spatial learning and hippocampal protein kinase C γ in immature rats

This study was conducted to determine if alterations in hippocampal protein kinase C (PKC) γ is one of the cellular mechanisms by which conventional antiepileptic drugs affect learning and memory. Wistar Rats (21-day-old) were divided into five groups: (1) control (no training and drugs); (2) training group (no drugs); (3) phenobarbital (PB) group; (4) carbamazepine (CBZ) group; and (5) valproate (VPA) group. A hippocampus dependent learning task (spatial changing learning) was used in the latter four groups lasting a total of 10 days. Correct responding rate of training group was significantly higher ( P<0.05) than in the PB, CBZ and VPA group. The PKC γ staining intensity in hippocampal CA1–2 region of training group was significant greater than that of the control and PB group. There was no difference in staining intensities between the CBZ, VPA group or training group. The amount of PKC γ located in plasma membrane of hippocampal neurons was significantly higher in the training group ( P<0.05) than the control, PB and VPA groups. No differences were found between the training and CBZ group. Lastly, the amount of PKC γ in cytosol of hippocampus did not significantly differ between any of the five groups. These results indicate that the three antiepileptic drugs used in this study all disturbed the spatial learning of immature rats. Spatial learning was concomitant with activation of PKC γ in hippocampal neurons. PB and VPA likely adversely affect learning and memory by interfering with PKC γ activation, whereas CBZ may act by a different mechanism, possibly in the post-translocation process or by a PKC γ independent pathway.

Comparison of within-stimulus and extra-stimulus prompts to increase targeted play behaviors in an inclusive early intervention program.

Limited participation and sampling of stimuli by children in early childhood programs may restrict opportunities to respond and limit learning. The purpose of this study was to extend the concept of within-stimulus prompting (Schreibman, 1975) for use in an early intervention classroom to occasion play with previously low-contact toys in previously low-contact centers for two children. Kaitlyn was 27 months old and diagnosed with Down syndrome. Greg was 29 months old and diagnosed with autism. A reversal design was used to evaluate experimental conditions. For Kaitlyn, adult prompting more effectively occasioned toy play. For Greg, the within-stimulus prompt effectively occasioned play with planted stimuli in previously low-contact centers following the within-stimulus with adult prompt phase and return to baseline. ********** Maximal intervention growth in early intervention classrooms is likely to depend at least in part upon full participation and sampling of multiple stimuli (i.e., toys and activity centers). When a child exhibits low levels or highly restricted patterns (e.g., toy choices) of play in a classroom, the child may receive a restricted range and number of learning trials or opportunities to respond. Therefore, early childhood programs serving children with disabilities often seek ways to improve child participation and contact with stimuli across multiple activity centers in the classroom (e.g., blocks and manipulatives, computer, dramatic play, and reading centers). Adult prompting is well established as an effective training strategy (Wolery, Ault, & Doyle, 1992), and is commonly used to occasion toy play, speech, and other behaviors in early childhood settings (e.g., milieu teaching, incidental teaching). Effective adult prompting procedures require a child to attend to the programmed adult prompt or discriminative stimulus (e.g., Sean, go to the sand table) while simultaneously discriminating the naturally-occurring stimuli (another child leaves sand table creating an opening there). Correct independent performance of the skill necessitates transfer of control from the adult prompt to the naturally-occurring discriminative stimulus, a process that may produce an increase in errors, at least initially. In contrast to adult prompting, within-stimulus prompting (Schreibman, 1975) manipulates criterion-related cues to establish correct responding (e.g., carpet squares are used around the sand table for children to stand on, when a child leaves the sand table a carpet square is empty). Once correct responding is established, the cue can be faded (e.g., size of carpet square is gradually reduced until absent) so that the only remaining distinction is the criterion distinction (i.e., open spot at the sand table). Because within-stimulus prompting involves a relevant part of the training stimulus, it may effectively establish the response when the child attends only to a relevant part of the training stimulus. Thus, within-stimulus prompting may result in errorless transfer. That is, within-stimulus prompting does not require a transfer of control from a programmed prompt that is not intrinsic to the activity and allows for gradual, deliberate fading. Several investigators have demonstrated the potential utility of within-stimulus prompts to establish correct responding (Mosk & Bucher, 1984; Repp, Karsh, & Lenz, 1990; Schreibman, 1975). Schreibman compared the effectiveness of extra-stimulus (adult prompting) to within-stimulus prompting (stimulus shaping) to train auditory and visual discriminations with six children with autism. Schreibman found that participants always required a prompt to learn the discrimination and the within-stimulus prompting procedure effectively established auditory and visual discriminations whereas extra-stimulus prompting did not for most of the children. Mosk and Bucher used an alternating treatments design to compare the effectiveness of a stimulus-shaping with prompting procedure to a standard least to most prompting package (i. …

Different effects of individual and small group monetary incentives on high performance.

Abstract The effects of individual and small group monetary incentives on the performance and satisfaction of performers were examined. The design was an ABCB within-subject reversal design, where A = hourly pay, B = individual incentives and C = group incentives. Four college students were told that they were members of a10-Person group. During the group monetary incentive condition, the simulated group's performance was manipulated so that the participants were high performers. Participants performed four simultaneous computerized tasks, an arithmetic task, a memory task, a visual monitoring task and an auditory monitoring task, earning points for correct responding. Three of the four participants performed an average of 16%, 14%and 12% lower when paid group incentives than when paid individual incentives. All four preferred individual incentives to group incentives and hourly pay, and three of the four reported that group incentives were more stressful than either hourly pay or individual incentives. ********** Laboratory and field studies have consistently demonstrated that individual monetary incentives and small group monetary incentives increase performance in comparison to hourly pay (for recent reviews, see Bucklin & Dickinson, in press; Honeywell-Johnson D Jenkins, Gupta, Mitra, & Shaw, 1998). Given the relevance of compensation systems to business organizations, most of this research has been conducted within that context. The results of these studies, however, have implications for other settings and, perhaps, for rewards other than money (Hantula, 2001). No doubt this is because individual and group monetary incentives have many of the same characteristics that have been identified by behavior analysts as features of any type of effective management reward system (Braksick, 2000; Brown, 1982; Daniels, 1989; O'Brien & Dickinson, 1982). They: (a) are based on the performance of the individual or the performance of only a small number of individuals; (b) are based on clearly specified behaviors or outputs; (c) are certain (that is, if the behavior/output occurs, the individual will receive the incentives); and (d) are paid as soon after the performance as possible as part of the individual's paycheck. Nonetheless, the current discussion will be restricted to the examination of the effects of individual and group monetary incentive systems within the field of organizational behavior. Surveys conducted over the past decade have consistently reported that about 35% of U.S. companies pay their employees individual monetary incentives and about 15%-20% pay their employees small group monetary incentives (Gross, 1995; Lawler, Ledford, & Mohrman, 1989; Mitchell, Lewin, & Lawler, 1990;O'Dell & McAdams, 1987; Peck, 1990). While individual monetary incentive systems are currently more prevalent in business and industry, the use of small group incentives is increasing. In one survey, 39% of the respondents who did not use group incentives reported that they were considering them (Gross, 1995). Based on the results of another survey, Ledford and Hawk (2000) reported that the use of small group monetary incentives in Fortune 1000 firms increased by 50% between1987 and 1996. This increase reflects the fact that many organizations have adopted group pay plans to support new organizational structures based on work teams (Flannery, Hoftichter, & Platten, 1996). When individuals are paid individual monetary incentives, the incentives are based solely on the performance of the individual employee. In contrast, when individuals are paid group incentives, the incentives are based on the total performance of the group. Because workers have less control over the group's performance and hence their individual earnings, they may be less productive than when they are paid individual incentives (Blinder, 1990; Dierks & McNally, 1987; Honeywell, Dickinson, P McCoy, 1992). …

Programming for Maintenance: An Investigation of Delayed Intermittent Reinforcement and Common Stimuli to Create Indiscriminable Contingencies

Generalization across time or maintenance of behavior change is a fundamental concern for behavior analysts and educators that remains insufficiently understood. This study examined the maintenance of mathematics responding during and following delayed intermittent reinforcement when common stimuli were programmed across the treatment and maintenance phases. Two third-grade girls who were referred by their classroom teacher due to concerns in the area of mathematics participated. Students were exposed to baseline, contingent reinforcement, delayed intermittent reinforcement, and a maintenance condition. The maintenance condition followed exposure to delayed intermittent reinforcement and included common stimuli from the reinforcement condition, but did not include a contingency for correct responding. Both students exhibited substantial prolonged maintenance during this condition. Implications of these results for future research examining maintenance and applied programming for maintenance are discussed.