Corporate Social Responsibility Activities Research Articles

Comparing groups of units through composite indicators in a non-convex approach: corporate social responsibility for the food and beverage manufacturing industry

AbstractThis paper compares the performance of groups of units by composing indicators of corporate social responsibility (CSR) from an efficiency and productivity perspective, applicable across various industries. From a methodological perspective, our work extends the traditional input-oriented Benefit-of-the-Doubt (BoD) model in the multiplier form, by first adapting it to accommodate the non-convexities of the production set, and second, by innovatively applying it to compare indicators across groups of firms. This adaptation, pioneered in our study, leverages the framework previously established in the literature to address more complex scenarios. From an empirical perspective, we contribute by comparing the efficiency and productivity in CSR activities of food and beverage companies across regions of Europe, the United States and Canada, and Asia–Pacific over the period 2009–2018. The paper reveals that USA-Canadian firms tend to perform best with respect to CSR, followed by European firms, and that Asian-Pacific firms achieve the worst efficiency and productivity results. The study also shows that regional catching up in CSR productivity occurred over the analyzed period.

Extreme Weather and Firm Market Value: Roles of Corporate Social Responsibility and Stock Analyst Attention

ABSTRACT The outbreak of extreme weather events is increasing in frequency for the last decade, resulting in tremendous human and industrial losses worldwide. Evaluating and managing the effects of such events are highly urgent matters for firms, but the literature on this topic is limited. In this study, the effects of extreme weather events on the stock market performance of firms were estimated to provide a foundation for exploring how to manage such effects. From the perspective of the shareholder view, the heterogeneous effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) on stock performance associated with extreme weather events were examined. Data on natural disasters that were caused by six types of extreme weather and occurred between 2001 and 2021 in China were used to construct a database of 2,718 Chinese listed manufacturing firms and 23,529 observations regarding the potential effects by extreme weather events. An event analysis indicated that the extreme weather events bring an average of 0.97% drop in the stock performance of potentially affected firms for the month that the event starts and the next month. A subsequent cross-sectional analysis revealed that a high CSR level is associated with low market value during extreme weather events, while a high level of stock analyst attention alleviates the negative effect of CSR on the stock performance of extreme weather events. This study enriches the existing literature and offers practical insights for managers in the fields of CSR and operations management, highlighting the complex dynamics between CSR activities, analyst attention, and stock market performance during extreme weather events.

Motivations and Strategies of Sport-Based Corporate Social Responsibility: Multiple Case Studies of Taiwanese Enterprises

Since the United Nations announced the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015, which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) guiding global efforts from 2016 to 2030, corporate organizations have increasingly integrated SDGs into their cultures, adopting innovative strategies to practice sustainable development. This integration has yielded numerous inspiring breakthroughs and success stories. Corporate organizations have found significant contemporary relevance in practicing corporate social responsibility (CSR) through sports. This study explores the motivations for and the scope of CSR activities undertaken by Taiwanese enterprises that use sports as a vehicle. Through in-depth interviews and multiple case studies, this study examines the commonalities and uniqueness of sport-based CSR, providing a detailed depiction of the current state and challenges faced by enterprises engaging in sport-based CSR and sustainable development. The findings will lead to new perspectives and feasible strategic directions for the advancement of sport-based CSR.

Corporate Organizations and Corporate Social Responsibilities: Does the CSR practice boost the financial performance of Oil and Gas Corporations in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria?

Corporate social responsibility is a global practice by companies which stipulates a way such companies contribute to the development of host community or forming partnership with constituted authorities for community development. The study investigated the CSR activities of oil and gas multinational companies in Nigeria to find out the extent it positively affects their financial performance. The study is anchored on stakeholder theory. The major source of data collection was through primary source and questionnaire method was the main technique for data collection. However, sample size of 350 staff was purposively drawn from the over 550 populations of five selected oil and gas multinationals in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Copies of open ended structured questionnaire were distributed to the members of staff of the selected oil and gas multinationals in the Delta region of Nigeria. Descriptive statistics using cross tabulation and chi-square distribution were deployed for data analysis. The study revealed that corporate social responsibility activities of oil and gas multinational companies do not directly robustly positively affect their financial performance because the activity usually involves spending money and resources to meet the development needs of the host communities. The study, however, recommends improved CSR activities of the companies to their host communities because it is more likely to result in peaceful atmosphere for effective and efficient operations which in turn could positively affect their finances.

A TESCO Magyarország fenntarthatósági és közösségi tevékenysége menedzsment összefüggésének vizsgálata

In their fifth sustainability management case study, the authors examine the focus, organizational processes, and operation of TESCO's responsibility and community activities in Hungary. On the one hand they executed analyses of publicly available company reports and internal documents, while on the other hand, they conducted semi-structured interviews with internal and external experts who play a key role in the added CSR activities. In addition to the descriptive presentation of the activities, the authors' work points out that there are many crutial organizational conditions for the effective management of organizational processes related to sustainability and communities, furthermore they highligted the possibilities and limitations of involving external parties and service providers, as well. The value of the case study is enhanced by the fact that no comprehensive case study presenting the sustainability activities of the leading domestic food retail companies has been published recently. Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) codes: A13, D6, F6, M14, M19, M38

Board gender diversity and accounting conservatism: the role of corporate social responsibility

Purpose This paper aims to provide deeper insights into the relationship between board gender diversity (BGD) and accounting conservatism by exploring the mediating role of corporate social responsibility (CSR) underlying this relationship. Design/methodology/approach The authors sample 10,252 firm-year observations from 932 publicly listed firms in 15 European countries over the 2010–2020 period. The authors conduct several models for panel data, applying mediation mechanisms, the Heckman two-stage model and the generalized method of moments and instrumental variable regressions to test the research hypotheses and account for endogeneity problems as well as unobservable heterogeneity. Findings Based on an integrated theoretical framework that draws insights from agency, resource dependence and stakeholder theories, the authors establish a positive and significant relationship between BGD and accounting conservatism, which is significantly mediated by CSR. The authors provide empirical evidence for the prior inconsistent results on the gender diversity-conservative accounting link and suggest that BGD promotes effective corporate governance and enhances CSR performance, which in turn, leads to higher conservatism in financial reporting. Practical implications The findings have important implications for regulators, policymakers and managers in understanding the drivers to ensure and control the quality of financial reporting. The results alert firms to the need to focus not only on the importance of BGD but also on CSR activities to ensure higher earnings reporting quality. Social implications The results are significant in encouraging a higher presence of women on corporate boards, enhancing CSR performance and drawing social attention to mitigating earnings management practices through higher conservatism in financial reporting. Originality/value This paper recognized a gap in the literature not yet examined and contributed to the body of knowledge through the mediating role of CSR in the relationship between gender diversity and accounting conservatism.

Flattering the government: negative reports by state-controlled media and CSR

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate whether negative reports by state-controlled media affect firms’ CSR performance. Negative reports by state-controlled media indicate the signals of deteriorating relationships between firms and the government and then generate greater political pressure on firms, which may force firms to engage in more CSR activities. This study first examines the influence of negative reports by state-controlled media on CSR performance. Then, we further figure out whether the degree of dependence on the government exhibits an impact on the relationship between negative reports by state-controlled media and firms’ CSR performance.Design/methodology/approachThe sample for this study is based on all Chinese A-listed firms from 2010 to 2020. The study employs CSR scores data released by HEXUN to measure firms’ CSR performance. HEXUN is one of the most professional institutions that sell CSR-related products. Following You et al. (2018) and An et al. (2022), the authors identify the nine most popular media consisting of state-controlled media. The ordinary least squares (OLS) method is adopted for regression, and various robustness tests are conducted including using alternative measures, expanding the regression model and instrumental variable method.FindingsThe empirical results show a significant positive relationship between negative reports by state-controlled media and firms’ CSR performance. The cross-sectional analyses indicate that the effect of negative reports by state-controlled media on firms’ CSR performance is stronger for firms with mandatory CSR disclosure requirements, firms with political connections and firms with more severe financial constraints. Furthermore, improved CSR performance resulting from negative reports by state-controlled media indeed helps repair firms’ relationship with the government and thus leads them to attain government benefits, such as more government subsidies and lower tax rates.Research limitations/implicationsThis study finds that media reports issued by state-controlled media can be treated as signals of the relationships between firms and the government, which generate political pressure to push firms to take CSR as a strategic management tool to repair their relationships with the government. It helps policymakers and investors more comprehensively understand firms’ incentives behind their improved CSR performance and develop more effective policies. This study focuses on firms’ overall CSR performance. We anticipate that future research can extend the analysis of the impact of negative reports by state-controlled media on specific aspects of CSR investment.Originality/valueThis study illustrates the significantly positive effect of negative reports by state-controlled media in promoting CSR performance. It fills the research gap in studying the role of state-controlled media in CSR, especially for emerging markets. Moreover, the study also contributes to the strand of literature on strategic CSR management.

Mandatory CSR regime strips the competitive advantage: a comparative study of pre-post CSR mandate using the Bandwagon-bias effect theory

PurposeWith corporate social responsibility (CSR) becoming mandatory, several firms in India have been compelled into spending resources on CSR while their business strategy and processes were unprepared to take up CSR activities, effectively. In this light, the CSR relationship with other business functions would be altered. Using Thomson Reuters data from 2010 to 2018 (pre-mandate to post-mandate) this study aims to re-examine the relationship between CSR and financial performance.Design/methodology/approachThe current study is rooted in the bandwagon-bias effect theory and uses a long-term data (2010–2018) of Indian firms. It uses Refinitiv Thomson Reuters ESG rating to measure CSR and accounting measures for financial performance (FP) to make a pre-post analysis of the impact that mandatory CSR regime has had on firms performance. The study uses the weighted panel regression method.FindingsThe relationship between CSR and FP is different when CSR was voluntary than when it has been mandated by Law. CSR has a positive effect over the FP during the voluntary phase but this positive relationship weakens during the mandatory phase. The waning effect of CSR over FP substantiates the presence of bandwagon bias effect which can be explained by the crowding-in of several companies engaged in CSR activities because of the mandatory CSR law.Research limitations/implicationsvFew countries have made CSR mandatory therefore CSR literature is limited. But mandating CSR is a growing phenomenon so this study augments to the body of knowledge. Until now literature generally converged on a positive relationship between CSR performance and FP but the current study shows altering directions to this relationship in a changing CSR environment. The use of the bandwagon-bias theory contributes to the theoretical approaches. Theoretically, the findings add to the body CSR literature and offer impetus to the evolving domain of impact measurement and reporting.Practical implicationsResults of the study offer a clear indication to managers that they need to re-strategise their CSR activities during the mandatory CSR environment if they wish to draw instrumental benefits of a positive impact on the FP of their firms. CSR expenditure is now a leveller so managers may either exceed the mandatory 2% expenditure as some firms did during the voluntary CSR phase or else design their CSR implementation plans to bring about a more impactful positive change. Communicating the impact of CSR to influential and powerful stakeholders beyond the mandatory reporting to the government is yet another way through which managers can draw benefits of CSR activities. Additionally to draw positive results from CSR activities firms may consider adopting international reporting and benchmarking standards such as the GRI and ISO 26000. Finally, the results of the study can be used by policymakers to make a note that the CSR law is causing a weakening of the financial benefits and therefore.Social implicationsThe results of the study can be used by policymakers also need to make a note that the CSR law is causing a weakening of the financial benefits and therefore firms are adopting shortcuts, by donating the required amount of funds. But donation of funds defeats the real purpose of mandatory CSR which is social impact, therefore the regulators may want to make the necessary changes unplug the gaps in the CSR law to ensure better adherence to the law in spirit and a real impact on the ground activities.Originality/valueWhile CSR–FP relationship has been extensively explored but limited studies have explored this relationship in a mandatory CSR environment and no other work presents a comparative view of the CSR–FP relationship, namely, before and after the mandatory CSR policy. The current study is one of the limited few studying the impact of mandatory CSR policy on FP, and the only one that uses the bandwagon-bias effect to explain the phenomenon of weakening impact of CSR on FP of firms. Bandwagon-bias effect has been used in studying consumer behaviour, where group effect impacts behaviour of individuals and with mandatory CSR policy, firms following the other firms leading to crowding in. Using the bandwagon-bias effect has found limited attention from the CSR scholars, the current study uses this theoretical basis and therefore augments the CSR literature.

Forecasting corporate social investment in Asian based organizational features of corporate social responsibility

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities, which target social and environmental challenges, are prompted by pressures from stakeholders. As a result, businesses use Corporate Social Investment (CSI) channels to finance CSR initiatives in the areas in which they conduct business. There is still a dearth of empirical studies in developing regions, especially in Asian countries, despite the large number of CSR studies carried out in wealthy nations. In order to determine the degree to which Firm Size and Organizational Sector predict Corporate Social Investment (CSI) in Asia, this quantitative study used frameworks for CSR and stakeholder engagement. To find out if these two organizational traits, used separately or together, have a substantial impact on CSI, three study questions were presented. Data from 54 Asian-based companies that submitted reports to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) between 2018 and 2022 were examined in this study. Multiple regression analysis (MRA) using archival data from GRI reports showed that Organizational Sector emerged as a significant predictor (b = 0.275, p = 0.005), indicating that manufacturing and fertilizing companies contributed more to CSI than other companies, while Firm Size did not significantly predict CSI spending (b = −0.089, p = 0.259). This emphasizes how critical it is to take the Organizational Sector into consideration as an important predictor of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and how important it is to take this into account when figuring out how firms might support social development in Asian communities.

Sustainable supply chain management and CEO compensation: does CSR committee matter?

ABSTRACT This study extends the existing literature on sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) and executive compensation by focusing on an important part of the company’s value chain, namely its supply chain (SC) and the associated risks. Through a quantitative study of companies listed on the SBF 120 over the period 2007–2021, our results emphasise the role of CSR committee to improve the relationship between the implementation of sustainable SC initiatives and CEO compensation. The CSR committee can be a way to improve the identification and consideration of environmental and social risks linked to the SC. We demonstrate the advantage of the presence of a CSR committee for the CEO themselves by increasing their compensation when they are more engaged in CSR activities. This result adds original insights to the existing literature which has already demonstrated the benefit of this committee for the other stakeholders. Thus, our results encourage the boards to implement this non-binding CSR committee as a supplementary governance mechanism.

Corporate social responsibility, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals and financial performance, with implications for human resource development

Purpose India is one of the fastest developing economies, but it faces numerous socioeconomic problems, such as hunger, poverty, under- and unemployment, gender inequity and illiteracy. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) funding at the corporate level could tackle these socioeconomic problems, providing support to the nation’s overall development. Mandated CSR expenditures, in alignment with the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, would support the nation’s contributions to building a sustainable future. Several questions, however, remain. Thus, this study aims to explore relationships between a company’s gross and net profits and its expenditures for CSR; and mapped the specific CSR activities used to address each of the 17 UN SDGs and then draw implications for human resource development (HRD). Design/methodology/approach The data were gathered from published annual reports (2019–23) of 60 Fortune 500 Indian companies. A zero-order correlation was used to find the relationship between CSR expenditure and gross, as well as net, profits. Furthermore, the CSR activities of the sample were mapped with the UN SDGs. Findings There was a positive, moderate to strong correlation between CSR expenditures and gross profit (r = 0.82, p < 0.01), but for net profit, the correlation was strong (r = 0.85, p < 0.01). All CSR activities mapped to at least one of the SDGs. Originality/value The alignment of CSR activities and SDGs based on Fortune 500 Indian companies has not yet been explored. Also, no study to date discusses the gaps in the CSR expenditures for specific UN SDGs.

Supervisory Boards and Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure: A Meta-Analysis

By synthesizing quantitative research results in 39 studies on how corporate governance mechanisms impact Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities, this study conducts a Hunter-Schmidt meta-analysis to investigate the role of the Supervisory Board (SB) on the effectiveness of CSR activities. This study examines the role of the board independence, non-executive directors, and outside directors in CSR performance, which measured by environmental policy, and corporate social performance. Using JASP software, this study found that based on the previous studies in the quantitative approach, the independence board and the non-executive director influence the CSR disclosure positively and significantly. In contrast, earlier studies found that the outside director had a contradictory result. This meta-analysis offers a notable outcome in that the high quality of the publication provides evidence related to the relationship between SB's CSR activities, and the monitoring system provides adequate supervision to encourage the executive to concern the stakeholders and shareholders more equally.

A Study on Corporate Social Responsibility of Selected Public and Private Sector Banks in India

In the present times Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) plays a major role in banking and other sectors in achieving their objectives. In India the companies are adopting Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices at a very fast rate due to their ethical standards as well as due to the requirements of the law. The companies are aware about their critical role in the society. The banking sector is no exception in this context. They are also adopting Corporate Social Responsibility practices. The public as well as private sector banks have already initiated many social and economic welfare programs which includes community welfare, education, environment protection, poverty eradication, health and medical care, rural area development etc. In the present study the Corporate Social Responsibility practices of banks has been studied. For this purpose, one bank from public and one from private sector has been selected. The public sector bank chosen for the study is State Bank of India and HDFC Bank has been selected from the private sector banks. The study analyzed and compared the total expenditure incurred by the banks on various Corporate Social Responsibility activities. The study found that both the banks have increased their spending on corporate social responsibility activities.

Trách nhiệm xã hội và cấu trúc quản trị ảnh hưởng đến rủi ro kiệt quệ tài chính của doanh nghiệp ngành tiêu dùng Việt Nam

Research on 34 Vietnamese consumer goods businesses from 2012 to 2022 has shown a positive relationship between the social responsibility index (CSR) and the Z-Score index, indicating that CSR activities help reduce risks. bankruptcy risk. The distinction between the positions of Chairman of the Board of Directors and CEO has a similar positive effect on Z-Score, emphasizing the role of corporate governance in influencing a company’s bankruptcy risk. Other factors such as large scale, high profitability and high cash ratio all have a positive impact on Z-Score. However, the financial leverage variable has the opposite effect, highlighting the importance of carefully managing financial leverage to prevent bankruptcy risk.

Exploring nonprofit perspectives on CSR: The emergence of retail corporate volunteerism

AbstractCorporate social responsibility (CSR) has predominantly been examined from a business standpoint, yet its implementation often involves the active participation of nonprofit organizations. While corporations may engage in CSR activities with the ultimate goal of business gain, questions arise regarding how these initiatives are perceived and utilized by their nonprofit partners to fulfill their missions. Surprisingly, limited research exists that explores CSR from the nonprofit standpoint. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating the perspectives of nonprofits in relation to CSR initiatives, focusing on a case study of three nonprofit organizations operating in the Australia food rescue sector. By examining corporate volunteering programs as a specific CSR initiative, the study identifies both instrumental CSR and strategic CSR within nonprofits' perceptions of their CSR partnerships. Moreover, the study uncovers nuanced differences between nonprofits that choose to adopt retail corporate volunteerism—commercialize their corporate volunteering programs and those that reject such commercialization. These differences manifest in the form of strategic transactional CSR versus strategic relational CSR mindsets, as elucidated by Mirvis' (2012) CSR framework. This research contributes to the CSR literature by offering valuable insights from the nonprofit perspective. It also sheds light on the emerging phenomenon of retail corporate volunteerism and possible CSR motivations for its occurrence.

How Corporate Social Responsibility Motivation Drives Customer Extra-Role Behavior and Green Purchase Intentions: The Role of Ethical Corporate Identity

This study investigates the relationship between the motives behind CSR and consumer extra-role behavior, as well as green purchase intention, specifically within the hospitality industry of an emerging market. This study uses two scenario-based experiments with high and low CSR fit contexts to examine how ethical corporate identity moderates the relationship. Both studies examine the impact of customers’ perceptions of a company’s CSR motivation (public-serving or firm-serving), on their extra-role behavior towards the company and intention to make green purchases. This influence is particularly relevant when the company actively communicates its ethical identity. The first study is conducted within a high-fit setting where the company’s locus aligns with its CSR program. In contrast, the second study replicates the research in a low-fit situation. The results indicate that CSR activities have a favorable effect on customer extra-role behavior and green purchasing intention, regardless of the CSR fit contexts. This effect is shown when the company’s ethical stance is known before engaging in CSR activities and when the goal is to serve the firm. Nevertheless, these endeavors demonstrate limited efficacy in prompting such conduct when the organization’s ethical identity remains implicit, even within a context driven by a desire to serve the public.

Creating shared values as a new paradigm of Corporate Social Responsibility

Background: Bank Sumsel Babel is faced with demands to focus on not only financial growth but also the positive impact on social and environmental fronts. The evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to Creating Shared Value (CSV) reflects a paradigm shift. As a regional development bank, Bank Sumsel Babel faces the demand to adopt CSV as an integral part of its CSR strategy to create a positive impact on society and the environment in the South Sumatra and Bangka Belitung regions. Purpose: This research explored the company’s strategy in implementing the Creating Shared Value (CSV) program as a new paradigm of CSR at Bank Sumsel Babel and analyzed the program publication to improve its reputation. Methods: This research used a descriptive qualitative research method to see the implementation of CSV at Bank Sumsel Babel. The researchers obtained data through interviews, observations, and document analysis. Results: Bank Sumsel Babel has successfully integrated the CSV approach into its CSR activities, particularly through the Bina Mitra program. This program has helped the bank address social issues such as education and community development and enhanced its business performance by building trust and loyalty among stakeholders. Conclusion: Companies can implement CSV-based CSR in some areas, while in other areas, they can use more traditional approaches, such as philanthropy or donations, to achieve a positive social impact. Implications: Bank Sumsel Babel can improve business performance and bring a positive impact on society through Creating Shared Value (CSV) programs as part of its CSR strategy.

The Impact of CSR Activities on Consumer’s Purchase Intentions: A Study of Consumer packed Goods (CPG) Industry of Pakistan

The Impact of CSR Activities on Consumer’s Purchase Intentions: A Study of Consumer packed Goods (CPG) Industry of Pakistan

Implementation of Samsung Tech Institute Program in SMK Negeri 2 Bawang, Banjarnegara Regency

This research aims to determine the implementation of the Samsung Tech Institute Program which is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) from a multinational company, namely Samsung, especially at SMK Negeri 2 Bawang, Banjarnegara Regency. This research uses CSR as a framework analysis that uses the Triple Bottom Line principle. The method is a descriptive qualitative, with primary data sources from interviews and observations as well as secondary data. The research results show that the Samsung Tech Institute Program is implemented through Samsung Indonesia's CSR activities "Samsung Tech Institute" which has a selected curriculum such as Hand Held Product (HHP), Home Appliances (HA), Audio Visual (AV), Training of Teachers (ToT), Samsung Innovation Campus (SIC), Skills and Competency Test, and Field Work Practices. The implementation of the Samsung Tech Institute also contributes to produce the graduates who are able to compete in job competition.

Impact of Corporate Social Performance on Financial Performance: Evidence from Islamic Banks, Conventional Banks and Social Banks

Purpose — This study aims to assess the impact of banking models on the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) in determining a viable model for sustainable banking. Design/Methodology/Approach — The study uses a cross-country sample of 117 financial institutions across 36 countries over an 8-year observation period between 2013 and 2020. To address heterogeneity and endogeneity issues, the authors use the System Generalised Methods of Moments (GMM) estimation models. The study also constructs a novel CSP Index as the independent variable for the research. This CSP Index comprises six indicators reflecting dimensions of financial inclusion and intermediation, serving as proxies for sustainable banking. Findings — The findings reveal that the distinct banking models have a significant impact and can alter the direction of the CSP-CFP relationship. Specifically, the conventional banking (CB) model exhibits a statistically significant negative association between CSP and CFP. Conversely, the Islamic banking (IB) model emerges as a promising avenue for sustainable finance, indicating that increased corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities within Islamic banks (IBs) lead to greater profitability. This difference arises from the inherent strengths of the IB system in conducting financial intermediation and inclusion activities. This contrasts with the CB model’s reliance on debt-based instruments, which exacerbates risk and detrimentally impacts financial performance. The findings also show that the social banking (SB) model has a significant effect on the CSP-CFP relationship. Originality/Value — The findings give new insights into the longstanding debate on the CSP-CFP relationship by examining the impact of banking models. Introducing a novel CSP Index, characterised by its objectivity and verifiability, addresses the prevalent issue of bias inherent in the CSP indices of previous studies.