Parental Corporal Punishment Research Articles

Effect of Parental Corporal Punishment on Endorsement of Its Use: Moderated Mediation by Parent Gender and Attitudes Toward Corporal Punishment.

Previous research has examined the factors that place an individual at a risk of using harsh discipline on children. Chief among these predictors is an individual's own experience of corporal punishment, as well as favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment as a parenting strategy. However, few studies have examined the relationships among these variables in emerging adults. Thus, the current study advanced this area of research by examining how attitudes toward corporal punishment mediated the association between the experience of corporal punishment within the past year and the endorsement of corporal punishment as a future parenting strategy of choice among emerging adults when presented with a vignette. In addition, the current study examined gender differences among study variables, including participants' parental disciplinary practices and whether participants were more accepting of using corporal punishment against a boy or girl in a hypothetical vignette. Participants (N = 393; Mage = 19.21) completed an online survey that included a hypothetical vignette depicting child misbehavior. Results from the current study suggested the experience of corporal punishment from mothers appeared to have more of an influence on the decision to endorse corporal punishment in the vignette for both emerging adult males and females. The findings from the current study highlight the importance of reducing the use of corporal punishment as a discipline strategy, as the experience of corporal punishment appears to shape attitudes which may favor future use of the practice.

Cortisol stress reactivity moderates the effects of parental corporal punishment on Chinese preschoolers' executive function.

To date whether the effects of parental corporal punishment (CP) on executive function (EF) distinct components are different is less clear. Moreover, theory and empirical work suggest that physiological regulation system may help to explain the individual differences in the developmental outcomes associated with parental CP. This study examined the effects of parental CP on Chinese preschoolers' EF and whether the cortisol stress reactivity would moderate such effects. One hundred and fifty-two preschool-aged children and their parents from Beijing China participated in the present study. Parental CP was reported by fathers and mothers respectively in the first year of the study (2015, spring), and children's EF was assessed and salivary cortisol was collected in the second year (2016, spring). Both paternal and maternal CP were negatively correlated with children's EF one year later, and the relation between maternal, but not paternal CP and children's EF was moderated by cortisol stress reactivity. Specifically, compared to children with high cortisol stress reactivity levels, children with low cortisol stress reactivity levels who experienced maternal CP in the past year showed poorer global EF and working memory. Findings highlight the critical importance of examining the interactive effects of individual physiological level and environmental-level risks on young children's self-regulation outcomes.

Parental Corporal Punishment and Child Temperament: Independent and Interactive Predictors of Child Emotion Regulation in China.

The goal of this study was to simultaneously examine the independent and interactive effects of paternal and maternal corporal punishment, and child temperament on child emotion regulation over time in China. These links were assessed on a longitudinal study of 619 father-mother dyads and their children in primary schools (data collected in 2011 and 2014). Results showed an additive model where both parental corporal punishment and child temperament independently predicted child emotion regulation 3 years later. In addition, the effects of parental corporal punishment exhibited gender differences, with paternal corporal punishment predicting girls' emotion regulation and both paternal and maternal corporal punishment predicting boys' emotion regulation 3 years later. Moreover, the interactive effects of paternal and maternal corporal punishment and temperament on child emotion regulation were not found in the present study. These findings point to the importance of examining multiple factors within the family system to further understand the developmental process of child emotion regulation, particularly within the Chinese cultural context.

Associations between childhood experiences of parental corporal punishment and neglectful parenting and undergraduate students' endorsement of corporal punishment as an acceptable parenting strategy.

This study evaluated the effects of childhood experiences of parental corporal punishment (CP) and neglectful parenting (NP) on Japanese university students’ endorsement of parental CP (EPP) to discipline children, in relation to subjective happiness (SH). A total of 536 undergraduate students who showed no physical symptoms completed anonymous paper-based questionnaires addressing demographic characteristics, undergraduate classes, and recent health conditions on SF-8 (PCS, MCS). It was found that the proportions of participants who experienced pervasive CP and NP were larger in men than in women (36.5% vs. 19.4% for CP; 22.1% vs. 9.7% for NP). Multiple regression analyses (n = 346) revealed that the CP score was associated with positive EPP (β = 0.310, p < 0.001). Further, students whose major was nursery education reported significantly lower level of EPP; however, neither SH nor good recent health conditions significantly reduced EPP. The NP score was inversely associated with the SH score (β = -0.253, p < 0.001) (n = 346). In conclusion, childhood experiences of parental CP may affect adolescents’ views related to their own parenting. Further investigation using internationally comparable methodologies, especially in prospective cohort studies, is warranted, not only in Japan but also in other Asian countries.

Perception, use and abolition of corporal punishment among high school teachers in a district in southwestern Nigeria.

Students in many regions of the world experience corporal punishment in multiple settings, although what is currently known about corporal punishment is derived from parental corporal punishment. Using a convenience sample of 271 teachers in 14 public and private secondary schools in a district in southwestern Nigeria, this article describes the associations between perception, use and support for abolition of corporal punishment. Results suggest that having children, more corporal punishment of own children and higher frequency of corporal punishment by colleagues were associated with frequent use of corporal punishment. Frequency of corporal punishment by colleagues accounted for the strongest variance in frequent use of corporal punishment. Lower corporal punishment of own children was associated with higher endorsement of abolition of corporal punishment from schools, whereas being male was associated with higher endorsement of abolition of corporal punishment from society. Teachers endorsed abolition of corporal punishment not only from schools but also from society. These findings highlight the "bandwagon" effect and teacher characteristics as potential risk factors for sustained perpetration and transmission of corporal punishment and draw attention to the need for intervention on alternative approaches to corporal punishment that could facilitate the abolition of corporal punishment from home and schools.

Breaking the mold: Socio-ecologic factors to influence the development of non-harsh parenting strategies to reduce risk for child physical abuse

Corporal punishment (CP) continues to be a common form of discipline in the U.S despite indications of its long-term harm to children, including strong risk for child physical abuse. Parents that are exposed to CP or physical abuse in childhood are at heightened risk for using CP with their own children. In examining parenting practices relevant to preventing child physical abuse, Positive Deviance relates to those parents who choose effective, positive parenting strategies to discipline their children, despite being exposed to CP and physical abuse in childhood. Little is known about buffering or motivating factors that prevent parents from using CP, or how these factors are influenced by parental childhood history or CP social norms. Therefore, this study examines the motives for use of positive parenting practices, including non-use of CP, for mothers who were exposed to CP and physical abuse in childhood (Positive Deviance). Qualitative interviews were conducted with seventeen mothers with a history of childhood CP and physical abuse. Results indicate that participating mothers believe CP is not an effective discipline strategy and is harmful for children. Mothers opted to use positive parenting practices, rather than CP, with their own children based on empathy, knowledge of harm, as well as rejection of intergenerational transmission of CP and community norms. Findings provide evidence that a Positive Deviance approach can inform target areas for primary prevention strategies aimed at reducing child physical abuse. Directions for multi-level public health prevention approaches and educational campaigns are discussed.

The Association between Paternal Job Stress and Maternal Child Corporal Punishment: Evidence from a Population-Based Survey in Metropolitan Japan

Although child corporal punishment can lead to adverse health outcomes in children, this practice remains prevalent in Japan. This study investigates whether, under Asian family norms, fathers’ job stress is a risk factor for mothers’ frequent use of child corporal punishment. A study sample of 522 children ages 0 to 6 years was obtained from a population-based survey in Tokyo. Data from mothers’ self-reports of maternal caretaker child corporal punishment were regressed on paternal job stress using logistic regression analysis. Covariates include child age (months), child gender, number of children in the household, maternal education, maternal adverse childhood experiences, and annual household income. Maternal psychological distress was hierarchically included in the model. Paternal job stress was significantly associated with maternal frequent use of child corporal punishment independent of maternal psychological distress and other known risk factors such as child’s age, maternal education, and maternal adverse childhood experiences. The results indicate that job stress may be a risk factor for parental child corporal punishment. Employers can contribute to improving children’s health and safety in the household by designing workforce policies to reduce employee’s stress and by offering psychoeducational programs for parents.

Parental harsh discipline and adolescent problem behavior in China: Perceived normativeness as a moderator.

This study examined the relations between parental harsh discipline (psychological aggression and corporal punishment) and adolescents' externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors and the moderating effects of adolescents' perceived normativeness of harsh discipline in Chinese society. Using a sample of 1158 Chinese middle-school students, our findings revealed that parental harsh discipline was associated with high levels of adolescent externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Adolescents' perceived normativeness of psychological aggression buffered the association between parental psychological aggression and adolescents' internalizing problem behaviors, whereas their perceived normativeness of corporal punishment buffered the association between parental corporal punishment and adolescents' externalizing problem behaviors. The findings from the current study highlight the importance of considering how adolescents' perceptions may influence the effects of parental harsh discipline on adolescent adjustment.

The moderating role of HPA activity in the relations between parental corporal punishment and executive function in Chinese school-aged children.

The moderating role of HPA activity in the relations between parental corporal punishment and executive function in Chinese school-aged children.

The Global Adoption of National Policies Protecting Children from Violent Discipline in Schools and Homes, 1950-2011.

With a focus on the relationship between women's and children's rights and theories of globalization, we conduct an event history analysis of more than 150 countries between 1950 and 2011 to assess the factors associated with policies banning corporal punishment in schools and homes. Our research reveals that formal condemnation of corporal punishment in schools is becoming a global norm; policies banning corporal punishment in the home, in contrast, are being adopted more slowly. We find that the percentage of women in parliament is associated with the adoption of anti-corporal punishment policies in both schools and homes, suggesting a nexus between women's and children's issues. Countries with more ethnic diversity are slower to adopt home policies, however. We propose that groups in these countries may be resistant to laws because of the risk of selective or prejudicial enforcement. In terms of globalization, more aid is associated with both school and home policies, and countries that have ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child are more likely to adopt home policies. Surprisingly, international nongovernmental organizations are not significantly associated with either type of policy adoption.

'Bad Apple' Peer Effects in Elementary Classrooms: The Case of Corporal Punishment in the Home

This paper provides the first empirical evidence on the existence of negative spillover effects from children exposed to corporal punishment in the home (CPH). We find that interactions with peers ...

The Residue Effects of Parental Corporal Punishment on Young Adults’ Psychological Adjustment: Evidence From Malaysia

The potential impacts of corporal punishment continue to be debated among scholars and policy makers, yet no clear picture has emerged. This study examined the relationship between parental corporal punishment and psychological adjustment among young adults ( n = 271) aged 19 to 25 years at a Malaysian public university. Participants completed measures of the ADULT PPQ: Physical Punishment Questionnaire and the ADULT PAQ: Personality Assessment Questionnaire. The findings revealed that parental corporal punishment is a prevalent phenomenon in Malaysia. All parental punishment variables, that is, harshness, justness, and forms of punishment, correlate significantly with the psychological adjustment. The study also showed that perceived parental harshness and maternal justness were found to be the strongest predictors of one’s psychological adjustment for each parent. Paternal and maternal punishment, however, do not differ significantly in predicting young adults’ psychological development. Besides that, the parental prediction model only accounted for 13% to 15% of the variance in psychological adjustment, suggesting that not every child perceived corporal punishment as parental rejection. The results showed that remembered corporal punishment is associated with greater or lesser psychosocial adjustment, depending on whether that corporal punishment was perceived as harsh or just.

Trajectories of child externalizing problems between ages 3 and 10 years: Contributions of children's early effortful control, theory of mind, and parenting experiences.

Preventing problem behavior requires an understanding of earlier factors that are amenable to intervention. The main goals of our prospective longitudinal study were to trace trajectories of child externalizing behavior between ages 3 and 10 years, and to identify patterns of developmentally significant child and parenting risk factors that differentiated pathways of problem behavior. Participants were 218 3-year-old boys and girls who were reassessed following the transition to kindergarten (age 5-6 years) and during the late school-age years (age 10). Mothers contributed ratings of children's externalizing behavior at all three time points. Children's self-regulation abilities and theory of mind were assessed during a laboratory visit, and parenting risk (frequent corporal punishment and low maternal warmth) was assessed using interview-based and questionnaire measures. Four developmental trajectories of externalizing behavior yielded the best balance of parsimony and fit with our longitudinal data and latent class growth analysis. Most young children followed a pathway marked by relatively low levels of symptoms that continued to decrease across the school-age years. Atypical trajectories marked chronically high, increasing, and decreasing levels of externalizing problems across early and middle childhood. Three-year-old children with low levels of effortful control were far more likely to show the chronic pattern of elevated externalizing problems than changing or low patterns. Early parental corporal punishment and maternal warmth, respectively, differentiated preschoolers who showed increasing and decreasing patterns of problem behavior compared to the majority of children. The fact that children's poor effortful regulation skills predicted chronic early onset problems reinforces the need for early childhood screening and intervention services.

Psychometric properties of the Violent Experiences Questionnaire

The Violent Experiences Questionnaire—Revised (VEQ-R) is a brief retrospective self-report inventory which provides estimates of annual frequencies of childhood physical abuse, sibling physical abuse, exposure to parental violence, peer bullying, and corporal punishment as they were experienced from ages 5 to 16. The VEQ-R indices rely on a frequency metric that estimates the number of days on average per year a specified class of behavior occurred over a 12year retrospective period. All scores range from a frequency of 0 to a high of 104. Scale normative data was generated from both a college (N=1266) and national (N=1290) sample to expand the research applicability of this relatively new inventory. Subscales were added to estimate the frequency of victimization during childhood, the pre-teen years, and adolescence. Four “hostility” component indices were derived from perpetrator source (parent, sibling, peer, or domestic). Thresholds were established to for High, Moderate, Low, and No Risk classifications. Subscales dimensions were found to have both adequate internal and temporal consistency. Evidence of concurrent and discriminant validity was generated using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale-Short-Form©, LONGSCAN Physical Abuse Self-Report scale, and Physical Punishment scale of the Assessing Environments III inventory.

A longitudinal study of the role of children’s altruism and forgiveness in the relation between parental aggressive discipline and anxiety of preschoolers in China

Using data collected over a 1-year period on a stratified random sample of 368 parents with children studying in nurseries (mean age=3.97years), this study assessed the predictive effects of parental corporal punishment, parental psychological aggression, preschoolers’ altruism, and preschoolers’ forgiveness on preschoolers’ anxiety symptoms in Hong Kong, China. Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed that parental psychological aggression, preschoolers’ altruism and preschoolers’ forgiveness at Time 1 significantly predicted preschoolers’ anxiety at Time 2, when controlling for the initial level of preschoolers’ anxiety and important demographic variables that co-vary with preschoolers’ anxiety. Moreover, preschoolers’ altruism moderated the predictive effect of parental psychological aggression on preschoolers’ anxiety symptoms. The study has several significant contributions. First, the study supports the predictive effect of parental aggressive discipline on preschoolers’ anxiety. Second, we provide evidence that preschoolers’ altruism and forgiveness negatively predict preschoolers’ anxiety symptoms. Third, preschoolers’ altruism and forgiveness are shown to protect them against parental psychological aggression. A dual-focus approach to intervention and prevention is proposed to reduce aggressive discipline by parents as well as to enhance altruism and forgiveness in children. Parent training programs could be provided to teach parents positive discipline strategies. Home-based or school-based interventions could be designed for preschool children to foster and enhance their altruism and forgiveness.

School corporal punishment, family tension, and students’ internalizing problems: Evidence from India

There is considerable evidence that parental corporal punishment (CP) is positively associated with children’s behavioral and mental health problems. However, there is very little evidence addressing whether CP perpetrated by teachers or school staff is similarly associated with problematic student functioning. To address this gap in the research literature, data were collected from students in a locale where school CP continues to be widely practiced. Participants were 519 adolescents attending public or private schools in Puducherry, a city in eastern India. Students completed surveys assessing school CP, internalizing problems, social support, and resilience. The results indicated that 62% of the students reported experiencing school CP in the past 12 months, with males and those attending public schools being significantly more likely to report school CP than females and those in private schools. Youth who reported school CP reported more anxiety and depression. That relation was more pronounced in youth who reported family tension. Social support and resilience did not moderate the relations. The findings add to the substantial evidence about negative associations regarding the use of CP but in a new venue—the school, and provide some evidence for the need to change how students are disciplined in schools in India and elsewhere.

Parental corporal punishment in relation to children’s executive function and externalizing behavior problems in China

ABSTRACTThe current study examined the relationship among paternal and maternal corporal punishment (CP), children’s executive function (EF), and children’s externalizing behavior problems. In total, 328 Chinese preschool-aged children and their parents and teachers participated. Paternal and maternal CP was assessed by father-reports and by mother-reports, respectively. Children’s EF was assessed by the Executive Function Touch program. Children’s externalizing behavior problems were assessed by mother-reports and by teacher-reports. The results of structural equation modeling generally supported working memory as a mediator linking paternal CP and children’s externalizing behaviors and inhibitory control as a mediator linking maternal CP and children’s externalizing behaviors. No differences by children’s gender were found. The current findings highlight the importance of EF in behavioral outcomes of children who experience parental CP.

Gender Differences in the Moderating Effects of Parental Warmth and Hostility on the Association between Corporal Punishment and Child Externalizing Behaviors in China

The study examines gender differences in the moderating effects of parental warmth and hostility on the associations between corporal punishment and child externalizing problem behavior in China. Three hundred fifty-eight preschool-aged children and their fathers and mothers were recruited to participate in this survey. The findings revealed that parental hostility but not parental warmth would moderate the associations between parental corporal punishment and child externalizing problem behavior, and the moderating effects had some interesting gender differences. Specifically, maternal hostility strengthened the link between paternal corporal punishment and child externalizing problem behavior for boys but not for girls, and paternal hostility strengthened the link between paternal corporal punishment and child externalizing problem behavior for girls but not for boys. These findings broaden our understanding of the contextual factors that account for the associations between harsh discipline and child outcomes, particularly within the Chinese cultural context.

Predicting externalizing and prosocial behaviors in children from parental use of corporal punishment

AbstractThis study examined whether parental corporal punishment (CP) was associated with children's externalizing and prosocial behaviors 2 years later. The potential moderating effects of child temperament, maternal depression, and parenting skills were explored. Also, exploratory analyses of these associations were conducted according to the children's gender. Data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (n = 1,686 children) were analyzed using ordinary least‐squares regression models. CP at 41 months was associated with boys' and girls' physical aggression and conduct problems at age five. Positive parenting skills moderated boys' conduct problems in the absence of CP. Parenting skills and maternal depressive symptoms moderated girls' prosocial behaviors in the absence of CP. Early experiences of CP are associated with negative developmental outcomes 2 years later. The implementation of parenting programs targeting a reduction in CP is recommended.Highlights Research question: Does spanking or hitting a child when he misbehaves influence children's externalizing and prosocial behaviors? Data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development were analyzed. Early spanking or hitting was associated with boys' and girls' physical aggression and conduct problems at age 5. Early experiences of spanking and hitting are associated with negative developmental outcomes. The implementation of parenting programs targeting a reduction in these parenting practices is recommended.

Victimization and psychopathic features in a population-based sample of Finnish adolescents

We examined different forms of victimization experiences in relation to psychopathic features and whether these associations differed in boys and girls among 4855 Finnish school adolescents aged 15–16 years. Psychopathic features were measured with the Antisocial Process Screening Device- Self Report (APSD-SR). Victimization was assessed with questions about violent and abusive experiences across lifetime and within the last 12 months. Results from linear regression analysis showed that victimization was significantly associated with higher APSD-SR total scores, more strongly in girls than boys. Recent (12-month) victimization showed significance in the relationship between victimization and psychopathic features; especially recent sexual abuse and parental corporal punishment were strong determinants of higher APSD-SR total scores. The present study demonstrates novel findings on how severe victimization experiences relate to psychopathic features in community youth, especially in girls. The findings underscore the need for comprehensive evaluation of victimization experiences when psychopathic features are present in youth.