Core Reading Research Articles

Comparing Tier 1 reading instruction with Tier 3 or special education intervention through an observational snapshot of school-implemented response to intervention across Grades 1–5

AbstractThere is limited research about Tier 3 interventions provided during typical school Response to Intervention (RTI) implementation. As part of a larger RTI exploration study designed to focus on students with the most intensive reading needs, our goal was to contrast their Tier 1 core reading instruction with their Tier 3 intervention. Schools identified participating students as receiving Tier 3 or special education for reading. We aimed to provide a snapshot of differences in Tier 1 and intensive interventions delivered to 264 students from 32 elementary schools. Our research team used the Instructional Content Emphasis-Revised (ICE-R; Edmond & Briggs, 2003) to observe differences in group size and the amounts and types of curricular content (e.g., code vs. meaning-focused) students received during both tiers. We explored whether these patterns were consistent across Grades 1–5 and if they differed in relation to students’ disability (reading disability vs. other disability vs. no disability). We also examined whether the Tier 3 observation data was consistent with administrators’ reports about RTI implementation within their school. Across the grades, we found significantly more small-group than whole-class instruction during Tier 3 than in Tier 1. We observed significantly lower proportions of code-focused instruction than meaning-focused instruction, particularly during Tier 1. Generally, code-focused instruction decreased across the grades in both tiers. Although we found a trend suggesting students with reading disabilities may have received higher proportions of code-focused instruction than other students, this was not significant after multiple comparisons. We discuss some similarities and differences between our observations and administrator data. We discuss implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

White matter microstructural plasticity associated with educational intervention in reading disability.

Children's reading progress typically slows during extended breaks in formal education, such as summer vacations. This stagnation can be especially concerning for children with reading difficulties or disabilities, such as dyslexia, because of the potential to exacerbate the skills gap between them and their peers. Reading interventions can prevent skill loss and even lead to appreciable gains in reading ability during the summer. Longitudinal studies relating intervention response to brain changes can reveal educationally relevant insights into rapid learning-driven brain plasticity. The current work focused on reading outcomes and white matter connections, which enable communication among the brain regions required for proficient reading. We collected reading scores and diffusion-weighted images at the beginning and end of summer for 41 children with reading difficulties who had completed either 1st or 2nd grade. Children were randomly assigned to either receive an intensive reading intervention (n = 26; Seeing Stars from Lindamood-Bell which emphasizes orthographic fluency) or be deferred to a wait-list group (n = 15), enabling us to analyze how white matter properties varied across a wide spectrum of skill development and regression trajectories. On average, the intervention group had larger gains in reading compared to the non-intervention group, who declined in reading scores. Improvements on a proximal measure of orthographic processing (but not other more distal reading measures) were associated with decreases in mean diffusivity within core reading brain circuitry (left arcuate fasciculus and left inferior longitudinal fasciculus) and increases in fractional anisotropy in the left corticospinal tract. Our findings suggest that responses to intensive reading instruction are related predominantly to white matter plasticity in tracts most associated with reading.

A Qualitative Exploration of Game-Based Activities in Picture Book Reading: Voices and Practices from Bilingual Kindergartens in China

This qualitative study delves into the integration of game-based activities within picture book reading sessions in bilingual kindergartens across China. Employing a dual-method approach, data was gathered through semi-structured interviews with six kindergarten teachers and classroom observations by two academic experts. The combined approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of this educational fusion's pedagogical strategies, tangible outcomes, and associated challenges. The findings highlight educators' ability to align game mechanics with book themes cohesively, consequently amplifying student engagement and comprehension. Challenges surfaced, particularly in aligning games with narrative nuances and managing student competitiveness. Despite the contemporary shift towards technology in Early Foreign Language (EFL) education, the study accentuates the sustained importance of traditional picture book readings, especially when intertwined with interactive games. This investigation offers a refined lens on EFL pedagogy, underscoring the harmonious integration of modern game-based techniques with core reading practices in bilingual kindergarten settings.

Adaptive short-term plasticity in the typical reading network

The left temporo-parietal cortex (TPC) is crucial for phonological decoding, i.e., for learning and retaining sound-letter mappings, and appears hypoactive in dyslexia. Here, we tested the causal contribution of this area for reading in typical readers with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and explored the reading network's response with fMRI. By investigating the underlying neural correlates of stimulation-induced modulations of the reading network, we can help improve targeted interventions for individuals with dyslexia. 28 typical adult readers overtly read simple and complex words and pseudowords during fMRI after effective and sham TMS over the left TPC. To explore differences in functional activation and effective connectivity within the reading network, we performed univariate and multivariate analyses, as well as dynamic causal modeling. While TMS-induced effects on reading performance and brain activation showed large individual variability, multivariate analyses revealed a shift in activation in the left inferior frontal cortex for pseudoword reading after effective TMS. Furthermore, TMS increased effective connectivity from the left ventral occipito-temporal cortex to the left TPC. In the absence of effects on reading performance, the observed changes in task-related activity and the increase in functional coupling between the two core reading nodes suggest successful short-term compensatory reorganization in the reading network following TMS-induced disruption. This study is the first to explore neurophysiological changes induced by TMS to a core reading node in typical readers while performing an overt reading task. We provide evidence for remote stimulation effects and emphasize the relevance of functional interactions in the reading network.

Phonological awareness (PA) in Chinese-English bilingual word decoding (reading)

Phonological awareness is one of core reading requisites in early reading acquisition. Children develop initial phonemic awareness and phonological awareness, which in turn contribute to their learning-to-read skills, word reading and decoding abilities in particular. This review study synthesized the relationship between phonological awareness and word reading ability in monolingual and Chinese-English bilingual readers to shed light on the universal and language-specific mechanisms of phonological awareness in word reading in two typologically-distant languages. The findings indicate that phonological awareness has different grain sizes (e.g., onset, rime, phoneme, and syllable) in shaping early reading acquisition. More important, the current study highlights the uniqueness of universality and language specificity in Chinese-English bilingual reading acquisition. In addition to general phonological awareness facets, lexical tone awareness has been endorsed as a key predictor of early Chinese-English bilingual word reading.

Pre-service teachers’ perceptions on eliciting learners’ knowledge in a mixed-reality simulation environment

Background: Concerns have been raised about the inconsistency and quality of pre-service teacher preparation, especially in reading literacy. Mixed-reality simulations can potentially revolutionise initial teacher education by offering realistic, risk-free practice opportunities to master reading practices.Objectives: This study explores pre-service teachers’ perceptions of: (1) interacting with avatars, (2) teaching core reading skills, particularly eliciting background information on informational text, and (3) using an action review cycle within a mixed-reality simulation environment.Method: A qualitative exploratory case study design was used in this study in order to document pre-service teachers’ perceptions of engaging within a mixed-reality simulation environment. A purposive sampling strategy was used to select participants for this study. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.Results: Findings reveal that pre-service teachers valued interacting with the avatars and appreciated the unique focus on eliciting learners’ background knowledge, a core reading practice. They typically teach full lessons with limited genuine engagement during microteaching opportunities, making this an interesting experience. They highlighted the mixed-reality simulation’s features, such as pausing, redoing, and receiving immediate feedback. The simulator allowed them to concentrate on skill mastery rather than staging lessons for grades.Conclusion: This study concludes that pre-service teachers’ skill development benefits from deliberate practice opportunities designed to enhance complex skills. Mixed-reality simulations could reshape how student teachers are prepared for reading instruction.Contributions: This research contributes to the understanding of pre-service teachers’ perspectives on teaching core reading practices in a mixed-reality simulation environment.

The effectiveness of Tier 1 digital interventions for early reading: A meta‐analysis

AbstractReading is a fundamental skill to acquire during children's school career. The present meta‐analysis examined research on the effectiveness of digital technologies to foster early reading skills during Tier‐1 interventions (ie, high‐quality core reading instruction which is intended to promote learning for all children). Unlike previous meta‐analyses, this meta‐analysis investigated the effectiveness in a broad way, taking into account cognitive versus non‐cognitive learning outcomes, near versus far transfer outcomes and immediate versus delayed outcomes. Furthermore, different study characteristics were taken into account including participant characteristics, the targeted reading subskills, duration of intervention, type of technology and the level of integration. A total of 568 effect sizes from 72 studies encompassing 60,890 participants were analysed using a meta‐analytic three‐level model. A Hedges'g effect size of 0.37 was obtained, suggesting that using digital technologies generally have a positive, albeit small, effect compared to traditional teaching methods. Moderator analyses indicated that this effect was robust to cognitive and non‐cognitive outcomes, near and far transfer outcomes, and immediate and delayed outcomes, but differed by participants' age and study quality. Recommendations are formulated to push forward research on how digital interventions can be effectively implemented in the classroom. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Digital technologies can foster (early) reading skills. Meta‐analyses to date focus only on the effect of digital reading interventions in terms of cognitive outcomes. Unclear how different factors moderate the effectiveness of digital reading interventions (eg, type of technology, trained content, level of integration). What this paper adds Results corroborate previous findings indicating a positive but small effect compared to traditional teaching methods. This study provides some evidence that this effect was robust to cognitive and non‐cognitive outcomes, near and far transfer outcomes, and immediate and delayed outcomes. The effect differed by participants' age and study quality. Game elements, adaptivity and whether the intervention was well integrated made little difference to the effectiveness of the intervention. Implications for practice and/or policy The results confirm that digital reading interventions are effective in fostering cognitive, non‐cognitive and efficiency outcomes. Call for more intervention studies investigating how game characteristics and the level of integration of a digital tool moderate the effectiveness. There is a need for reports of pilot studies investigating the effectiveness of recent digital technologies such as AR and VR.

Student Behavior Ratings and Response to Tier 1 Reading Intervention: Which Students Do Not Benefit?

Core reading instruction and interventions have differential effects based on student characteristics such as cognitive ability and pre-intervention skill level. Evidence for differential effect based on affective characteristics is scant and ambiguous; however, students with problem behavior are more often non-responsive to core reading instruction and intensive reading interventions. In this study, we estimated the range of students’ behavior ratings in which a core reading instruction intervention was effective using a data set including 3,024 students in K-3. Data came from seven independent studies evaluating the Individualized Student Instruction (ISI) Tier 1 reading intervention and were pooled using integrative data analysis. We estimated Johnson–Neyman intervals of student behavior ratings that showed a treatment effect both at the within and between classroom level. ISI was effective in improving reading scores (b = 0.51, p = .020, d = 0.08). However, students with very low or very high behavior ratings did not benefit from the approaches (range of behavior rating factor scores: −0.95–2.87). At the classroom level, students in classrooms with a higher average of problem behaviors did not benefit from ISI (average classroom behavior rating factor score: 0.05–4.25). Results suggest differentiating instruction alone is not enough for students with behavior problems to grow in reading ability.

Self‐Regulation and Reading Comprehension: Integrating and Aligning to Improve Reading Outcomes

AbstractTwo potential pathways for improving reading outcomes for students with reading disabilities are presented: (a) systematically integrating self‐regulation instructional practices within reading interventions and (b) aligning small‐group reading intervention with core reading instruction to reduce the pressure on the executive system. Two separate studies conducted with fourth grade students with significant reading difficulties, one related to integrating self‐regulation within a reading intervention and one related to aligning core instruction and reading intervention, are presented. Similar to many past high‐quality studies conducted with older students with reading disabilities, results revealed no statistically significant differences on commercially developed measures of reading comprehension. However, results on standardized measures of word reading and text reading fluency and researcher‐developed measures of vocabulary and text comprehension underscore the promise of these approaches and support the notion that considering self‐regulation in the context of reading instruction may be a productive conduit for supporting the needs of students with significant reading difficulties.

Predatory Journals: Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Literature Published between 2012 and 2021

The main purpose of this study is to identify the trends in predatory publishing and to compile a core reading list of documents on the topic of ‘predatory journals.’ The study examined 541 documents on the topic of ‘predatory journals’ indexed in the Web of Science database published between 2012 and 2021. The data set was analyzed quantitatively (bibliometric study) and qualitatively (document classification). For bibliometric analysis, parameters like year, disciplines, number of citations, countries, document types, and journals were used. The documents were classified into four groups, namely, General (326), Empirical Studies (89), Technical Specifics (71), and Cautionary Texts (55). The results of the analysis and co-relation between quantitative and qualitative parameters reveal that publications in medical sciences (221) form the majority in almost all groups. There is a steady growth in publications in all groups during 2018 and 2019. Research papers and editorial materials are greater in number. The largest number of documents are from the United States (163 documents). A large number of papers have been published in the journals Scientometrics (22) and Learned Publishing (28). The most highly cited (17) papers have been published in Nature. The core reading list of forty documents on predatory journals is the outcome of the study after examining the co-relationship between the two methods. The core reading list may assist new researchers in comprehending the various aspects of predatory journals. The article concludes with suggestions for further research.

An Overview of Books Suggested for Research Methods at International Relations (IR) Postgraduate Degree Programmes in Turkey

This study focuses on the core reading in research methods courses in International Relations (IR) postgraduate programmes in Turkey. The first section determines the core reading materials in the syllabi. In the second section, in order to thematically code these books, we create five categories: (1) General Research Methods, (2) Research Methods in Social Sciences (3) Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Research Methods, (4) Research Methods in Political Science (5) Research Methods in International Relations. The research was modelled/designed according to a case study conducted with a qualitative approach. The data collection method of the study is document review, while the chosen data analysis method is content analysis. The study analyses the contents of syllabi from 70 different module/course. Findings show that Social Sciences have the most methodology-related books with 37% of the books being relevant to research methods. Conversely, the study shows that this rate is at 1% for IR. The study concludes that discipline-specific method books are not chosen within the IR postgraduate programmes. Finally, the study recommends significant research methodology books to be included in the related IR syllabi.

Time for an Education Revamp? A Cross-Sectional Multi-Institute Survey of FMIGS Program Directors and Fellows’ Didactics Experiences

<h3>Study Objective</h3> Currently there is no comprehensive standardized didactics curriculum for fellowships in minimally invasive gynecologic surgery (FMIGS). The purpose of this study was to determine the current state of didactic education and the perceptions that program directors (PDs) and fellows have regarding a standardized curriculum. <h3>Design</h3> Cross-sectional study using a survey of AAGL FMIGS program directors and current fellows. <h3>Setting</h3> AAGL FMIGS programs. <h3>Patients or Participants</h3> The survey was distributed to all FMIGS fellows and PDs. <h3>Interventions</h3> An anonymous multi-item web-based survey was distributed and open for responses between February and March 2022. <h3>Measurements and Main Results</h3> Fifty-seven fellows (39% of current fellows) and 87 PDs (58% of current PDs) completed the survey. The average number of days per week in the operating room was 3.47 (SD 0.68). Seventy-eight percent of programs had a current structured educational curriculum. The average hours dedicated to education per month was 4.20 (SD 2.96). Fellows identified the most important educational resources as: FMIGS core reading list, FMIGS surgical video curriculum, online resources and simulation. Eighty-eight percent of PDs reported utilizing the FMIGS education objectives and reading list in creation of their curriculum. Of the fellows surveyed, 59% reported that there is not enough structure in their curriculums. Eighty-five percent of fellows and 70% of PDs stated their education programs could be improved. A large majority (78% of fellows and 64% of PDs) agreed that all fellows should learn the same content. Ninety-one percent of all respondents stated that all fellows should have access to the same educational resources. Seventy-four percent of all respondents agreed that participating in a standardized didactic curriculum would help fellows transition into independent practice. <h3>Conclusion</h3> This study demonstrates a potential need for a standardized, structured didactics curriculum for fellowships in minimally invasive gynecology as indicated by both fellows and program directors.

공감과 이해의 확장을 위한 ‘깊이 읽기’ 방법 연구

This study is the reading method of ‘Deep Reading’ to expand the empathy and Thinking learners experience in reading activities. To this end, some of the content systems and achievement standards of ‘Reading’ and ‘Literature’ in the revised curriculum in 2015 were examined. As a result of examining the core concepts and reading activities according to general knowledge and functions in the teaching and learning of the revised curriculum, it was confirmed that learners’ understanding and empathy were composed of basic elements. Accordingly, the theory of reading methods according to Adler and Van Doren’s reading level was analyzed, and the analytical reading methods for expanding understanding and Harvey and Goudvis’s ‘STR’ reading strategy, which actually applied their theories, were reviewed. Based on this, a plan to apply it to classes as a reading method for expanding understanding in the school was suggested. These research results will help learners grow as active readers who experience deep thinking, interpreting and constructing meaning further at the level of reading only texts.

Tracking Familial History of Reading and Math Difficulties in Children's Academic Outcomes.

The current study aimed to investigate the extent to which familial history of reading and math difficulties have an impact on children’s academic outcomes within a 3-year longitudinal study, which evaluated their core reading and math skills after first (N = 198; 53% girls) and second grades (N = 166), as well as performance on complex academic tasks after second and third grades (N = 148). At baseline, parents were asked to complete the Adult Reading History Questionnaire (ARHQ) and its adaption, Adult Math History Questionnaire (AMHQ), to index familial history of reading and math difficulties, respectively. Preliminary findings established the psychometric properties of the AMHQ, suggesting that it is a reliable and valid scale. Correlation analyses indicated that the ARHQ was negatively associated with children’s reading skills, whereas the AMHQ was negatively related to math outcomes. Path results revealed that the ARHQ predicted children’s performance on complex reading tasks indirectly via their core reading skills, and the AMHQ was linked to complex math outcomes indirectly via core math abilities. The ARHQ was also found to be negatively correlated with measures of children’s math performance, with path findings suggesting that these relations were indirectly explained by differences in their core reading skills. These results suggest that assessing familial risk for academic difficulties may be crucial to understanding comorbid etiological and developmental associations between reading and math differences.

The Relationship between Metacomprehension and Reading Comprehension in Spanish as a Second Language

The importance of reading proficiency in a second language (L2) is growing worldwide. Reading in a L2 involves many questions about the abilities of reading comprehension, including metacomprehension, a core reading ability in native speakers (L1) that allows them to be aware of their reading comprehension level and to regulate their learning. However, its link to L2 has not been sufficiently researched. This study examines the relationship between the reading comprehension scores of diverse texts and metacomprehension, assessed by the ECOMPLEC test and PROLEC-R reading task, in Portuguese students studying Spanish as a L2. Similar to the results found in L1 research, we found a significant relationship between reading comprehension and metacomprehension in expository and discontinuous texts: students with low reading comprehension scores overestimated their metacomprehension while metacomprehension abilities of students with high reading comprehension abilities were more accurate. These results provide a frame of reference for future studies on metacomprehension in L2.

Humane Education’s Effect on Middle School Student Motivation and Standards-Based Reading Assessment

Students educated in the juvenile justice system face acute challenges such as lack of motivation and negative attitudes toward school. Schools in the system are expected to provide rigorous, Common Core-standards-aligned instruction. Humane education—lessons that nurture kindness and empathy towards humans, animals, and the environment—has been shown to motivate students and encourage their pro-social sentiments. This randomized control trial (with constraints) study of 192 12- and 13-year-old students from New Jersey asked students to complete five standards-aligned reading passages with text-based questions. The experimental-group assessments contained humane education themes and the control-group assessments had non-animal related high interest topics. The passages were equated in reading level, word count, etc. Analyses of the results showed that not only did students who received humane education passages do better overall, but also did much better on questions addressing specific Common Core Reading for Information standards. This study can be a starting point for applying and researching the effectiveness of humane education on the juvenile justice population, specifically, because they are expected to learn standards-aligned curricula and are in particular need of academic motivation and pro-social encouragement.

From the Editors

From the Editors

Gray matter correlates of reading fluency deficits: SES matters, IQ does not.

Brain correlates of reading ability have been intensely investigated. Most studies have focused on single-word reading and phonological processing, but the brain basis of reading fluency remains poorly explored to date. Here, in a voxel-based morphometry study with 8-year-old children, we compared fluent readers (n = 18; seven boys) with dysfluent readers with normal IQ (n = 18; six boys) and with low IQ (n = 18; ten boys). Relative to dysfluent readers, fluent readers had larger gray matter volume in the right superior temporal gyrus and the two subgroups of dysfluent readers did not differ from each other, as shown in frequentist and Bayesian analyses. Pairwise comparisons showed that dysfluent readers of normal and low IQ did not differ in core reading regions and that both subgroups had less gray matter volume than fluent readers in occipito-temporal, parieto-temporal and fusiform areas. We also examined gray matter volume in matched subgroups of dysfluent readers differing only in socioeconomic status (SES): lower-SES (n = 14; seven boys) vs. higher-SES (n = 14; seven boys). Higher-SES dysfluent readers had larger gray matter volume in the right angular gyrus than their lower-SES peers, and the volume of this cluster correlated positively with lexico-semantic fluency. Age, sex, IQ, and gray matter volume of the right angular cluster explained 68% of the variance in the reading fluency of higher-SES dysfluent readers. In sum, this study shows that gray matter correlates of dysfluent reading are independent of IQ, and suggests that SES modulates areas sub-serving lexico-semantic processes in dysfluent readers-two findings that may be useful to inform language/reading remediation programs.

Cognitive, Graphomotor, and Psychosocial Challenges in Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated With Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS).

Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) is characterized by the sudden onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and other neurobehavioral symptoms following group A streptococcal infection. The cardinal neuropsychiatric symptoms are believed to reflect an aberrant autoimmune or inflammatory response that may selectively disrupt basal ganglia function. The investigators examined whether neuropsychological skills associated with frontostriatal networks (executive functions and motor skills) are affected in patients with PANDAS following resolution of acute symptoms and the degree to which there are persistent social, emotional, and academic difficulties. Twenty-seven patients ages 6-14 years (mean age=9.63 years [SD=1.78]; male, N=22) completed neuropsychological testing as part of routine clinical care. Performances on measures of intellectual ability, executive function, motor skills, and academic skills are reported, as well as parent-reported emotional, behavioral, and social skills. On neuropsychological measures, patients exhibited average intellectual functioning with relative and mild difficulties in skills supporting cognitive efficiency, including attentional regulation, inhibitory control, and processing speed. Dexterity was normal but graphomotor skills were reduced. Core reading, math, and writing skills were within expectations, but reading and math fluency were reduced, and the majority of patients received special education services or accommodations. Parents reported high levels of concern about anxiety, depression, inattention, hyperactivity, and social skills. These findings indicated relative difficulties with aspects of executive and motor functions. Although evaluations were performed following the resolution of acute symptoms, ongoing and significant academic difficulties and emotional, behavioral, and social concerns were targets for clinical intervention and support.

Has the Presence of First‐Grade Core Reading Program Academic Vocabulary Changed Across Six Decades?

AbstractThe purpose of the present study was to examine possible shifts in the presence of academic vocabulary across the past six decades for a continually best‐selling first‐grade core reading program. The authors examined seven program years dating from 1962 to 2013 and computationally determined four categories of academic vocabulary (science, mathematics, social studies, and general academic) in each program. The primary research question was, Did the volume of academic words in a program year rise with advancing years? A secondary supplementary question was, Did the propensity toward academic affinity of a program considered as a whole rise with advancing years? The authors employed two types of academic word measures: (1) A word was deemed to be academic or not, and if it was academic, it was assigned to one of the four academic categories, and then academic words were counted; and (2) a novel measure, academic affinity, was a continuous measure of the probability that a word was academic (in each of the four academic vocabulary categories). The authors conducted Poisson regression modeling and hierarchical generalized linear modeling. The main conclusions were that later first‐grade core reading program years included a moderately higher volume of science, social studies, and total academic words as compared with earlier years and that the science, social studies, and general academic affinity of the program as a whole was statistically higher in later years, but in practical terms, the change was not remarkable.