Core Formation In Planetesimals Research Articles

The Geochemical Legacy of Low-Temperature, Percolation-Driven Core Formation in Planetesimals

Mechanisms for core formation in differentiated bodies in the early solar system are poorly constrained. At temperatures below those required to extensively melt planetesimals, core formation could have proceeded via percolation of metallic liquids. Although there is some geochemical data to support such ‘low-temperature’ segregation, experimental studies and simulations suggest that percolation-driven segregation might have only contributed to core formation in a proportion of fully-differentiated bodies. Here, the effects low-temperature core-formation on elemental compositions of planetesimal cores and mantles are explored. Immiscibility of Fe-rich and FeS-rich liquids will occur in all core-formation models, including those involving large fraction silicate melting. Light element content of cores (Si, O, C, P, S) depends on conditions under which Fe-rich and FeS-rich liquids segregated, especially pressure and oxygen fugacity. The S contents of FeS-rich liquids significantly exceed eutectic compositions in Fe–Ni–S systems and cannot be reconciled with S-contents of parent bodies to magmatic iron meteorites. Furthermore, there is limited data on trace element partitioning between FeS-rich and Fe-rich phases, and solid/melt partitioning models cannot be readily applied to FeS-rich liquids. Interaction of metallic liquids with minor phases stable up to low fraction silicate melting could provide a means for determining the extent of silicate melting prior to initiation of core-formation. However, element partitioning in most core-formation models remains poorly constrained, and it is likely that conditions under which segregation of metallic liquid occurred, especially oxygen fugacity and pressure, had as significant a control on planetesimal composition as segregation mechanisms and extent of silicate melting.

Prevalence of short-lived radioactive isotopes across exoplanetary systems inferred from polluted white dwarfs

ABSTRACT In the Solar system, short-lived radioisotopes, such as 26Al, played a crucial role during the formation of planetary bodies by providing a significant additional source of heat. Notably, this led to early and large-scale melting and iron core formation in planetesimals and their loss of volatile elements, such as hydrogen and carbon. In the context of exoplanetary systems therefore the prevalence of short-lived radioisotopes is key to interpreting the observed bulk volatile budget and atmospheric diversity among low-mass exoplanets. White dwarfs that have accreted planetary material provide a unique means to infer the frequency of iron core formation in extrasolar planetesimals, and hence the ubiquity of planetary systems forming with high short-lived radioisotope abundances. Here, we devise a quantitative method to infer the fraction of planetary systems enriched with short-lived radionuclides upon planetesimal formation from white dwarf data. We argue that the current evidence from white dwarfs point towards a significant fraction of exoplanetesimals having formed an iron core. Although the data may be explained by the accretion of exomoon or Pluto-sized bodies that were able to differentiate due to gravitational potential energy release, our results suggest that the most likely explanation for the prevalence of differentiated material among polluted white dwarfs is that the Solar system is not unusual in being enriched in 26Al. The models presented here suggest a ubiquitous pathway for the enrichment of exoplanetary systems by short-lived radioisotopes, disfavouring short-lived radioisotope enrichment scenarios relying on statistically rare chance encounters with single nearby supernovae, Wolf–Rayet, or AGB stars.

The primordial He budget of the Earth set by percolative core formation in planetesimals

The primordial He budget of the Earth’s interior is commonly thought to have been set by full liquid metal-silicate equilibration in a terrestrial magma ocean. However, incomplete metal-silicate equilibration during accretion will have a substantial effect on this budget. Here we present liquid-solid partitioning experiments indicating that He behaves as a moderately siderophile element during percolative core formation in planetesimals. Mass balance considerations show that even minor disequilibrium will allow the Earth’s early core to incorporate sufficient primordial He—and possibly other noble gases—to supply the lower mantle throughout Earth’s history. We conclude that the high 3He/4He ratios in basalts may well represent primarily the last vestiges of metal-silicate disequilibrium in a terrestrial magma ocean preserved from the time of Earth’s formation.

Iron isotope constraints on planetesimal core formation in the early solar system

Abstract We determined the Fe isotope fractionation between the metal and silicate phases of two aubrite meteorites, Norton County and Mount Egerton. We find that the metallic phase is high in 57Fe/54Fe with respect to the silicate phase, with Δ57Femetal-silicate = 0.08‰ ± 0.04 for Mount Egerton and 0.09 ± 0.02‰ for Norton County. These data, combined with new measurements of 57Fe/54Fe of IIIAB iron meteorites, are used to constrain the origins of the high 57Fe/54Fe exhibited by all classes of iron meteorites. We find that if the parent bodies of the iron meteorites had chondritic bulk 57Fe/54Fe values, their cores must have been unusually small (≤8% by mass). Relaxing the constraint that the bodies were chondritic in their bulk iron isotope ratios allows for larger core mass fractions commensurate with usual expectations. In this case, the elevated 57Fe/54Fe values of iron meteorites are due in part to evaporation of melt during the accretion stages of the parent bodies and not solely the result of metal-silicate differentiation.

Rapid Core Formation in Terrestrial Planets by Percolative Flow: In-Situ Imaging of Metallic Melt Migration Under High Pressure/Temperature Conditions

Core formation has left a lasting geochemical signature on the Earth. In order to constrain the composition of the Earth we must fully understand the processes by which newly formed Earth, and the bodies which accreted to it, differentiated. Percolation of iron-rich melt through solid silicate has been invoked as a mechanism for differentiation and core formation in terrestrial bodies in the early solar system. However, to date the contribution of percolation to core formation cannot be assessed due to the absence of data on Fe-rich melt migration velocities. Here we use a novel experimental design to investigate textural changes in an analogue system, Au melt in polycrystalline h-BN, under the high pressure/temperature (PT) of core formation at 3 GPa, relevant to core formation in the early solar system. Using a combination of high resolution, in-situ X-ray tomography and fast 2-D radiographic imaging, we obtain the first direct data on melt migration velocities at high PT. Melt migration is highly variable and episodic, driven by variations in differential pressure during melt migration and matrix compaction. Smaller scale melt processes, representing migration of melt along pre-existing melt networks, give comparatively fast velocities of 0.6-60 µms-1. Ex-situ experiments are used to compare melt networks in analogue systems to Fe-rich melt in silicates. Two competing processes for melt migration are percolation of melt along grain boundaries, and hydraulic fracturing induced by melt injection. Typically, both processes are noted in experimental and natural systems, although the relative importance of each mechanism is variable. Using a simple model for melt flow through a porous media, migration velocities determined here account for full differentiation of Earth-sized bodies within 101 to 103 Myr, for submicron diameter melt bands, or within a few Myr or micron-sized melt bands. This is consistent with rapid timescales inferred from geochemistry for core formation in planetesimals, implying that percolation may have had an important contribution to core differentiation in the Earth.

Multistage Core Formation in Planetesimals Revealed by Numerical Modeling and Hf‐W Chronometry of Iron Meteorites

AbstractIron meteorites provide some of the most direct insights into the processes and timescales of core formation in planetesimals. Of these, group IVB irons stand out by having one of the youngest 182Hf‐182W model ages for metal segregation (2.9 ± 0.6 Ma after solar system formation), as well as the lowest bulk sulfur content and hence highest liquidus temperature. Here, using a new model for the internal evolution of the IVB parent body, we show that a single stage of metal‐silicate separation cannot account for the complete melting of pure Fe metal at the relatively late time given by the Hf‐W model age. Instead, a complex metal‐silicate separation scenario is required that includes migration of partial silicate melts, formation of a shallow magma ocean, and core formation in two distinct stages of metal segregation. In the first stage, a protocore formed at ≈1.5 Ma via settling of metal particles in a mantle magma ocean, followed by metal segregation from a shallow magma ocean at ≈5.4 Ma. As these stages of metal segregation occurred at different times, the two metal fractions had different 182W compositions. Consequently, the final 182W composition of the IVB core does not correspond to a single differentiation event, but represents the average composition of early‐ and late‐segregated core fractions. Our best fit model indicates an ≈100 km radius for the IVB parent body and provides an accretion age of ≈0.1–0.5 Ma after solar system formation. The computed solidification time is, furthermore, consistent with the Re‐Os age for crystallization of the IVB core.

Percolative core formation in planetesimals enabled by hysteresis in metal connectivity

The segregation of dense core-forming melts by porous flow is a natural mechanism for core formation in early planetesimals. However, experimental observations show that texturally equilibrated metallic melt does not wet the silicate grain boundaries and tends to reside in isolated pockets that prevent percolation. Here we use pore-scale simulations to determine the minimum melt fraction required to induce porous flow, the percolation threshold. The composition of terrestrial planets suggests that typical planetesimals contain enough metal to overcome this threshold. Nevertheless, it is currently thought that melt segregation is prevented by a pinch-off at melt fractions slightly below the percolation threshold. In contrast to previous work, our simulations on irregular grain geometries reveal that a texturally equilibrated melt network remains connected down to melt fractions of only 1 to 2%. This hysteresis in melt connectivity allows percolative core formation in planetesimals that contain enough metal to exceed the percolation threshold. Evidence for the percolation of metallic melt is provided by X-ray microtomography of primitive achondrite Northwest Africa (NWA) 2993. Microstructural analysis shows that the metal-silicate interface has characteristics expected for a texturally equilibrated pore network with a dihedral angle of ∼85°. The melt network therefore remained close to textural equilibrium despite a complex history. This suggests that the hysteresis in melt connectivity is a viable process for percolative core formation in the parent bodies of primitive achondrites.

Late metal–silicate separation on the IAB parent asteroid: Constraints from combined W and Pt isotopes and thermal modelling

The short-lived 182Hf–182W decay system is a powerful chronometer for constraining the timing of metal–silicate separation and core formation in planetesimals and planets. Neutron capture effects on W isotopes, however, significantly hamper the application of this tool. In order to correct for neutron capture effects, Pt isotopes have emerged as a reliable in-situ neutron dosimeter. This study applies this method to IAB iron meteorites, in order to constrain the timing of metal segregation on the IAB parent body.The ε182W values obtained for the IAB iron meteorites range from −3.61 ± 0.10 to −2.73 ± 0.09. Correlating εiPt with ε182W data yields a pre-neutron capture ε182W of −2.90 ± 0.06. This corresponds to a metal–silicate separation age of 6.0 ± 0.8 Ma after CAI for the IAB parent body, and is interpreted to represent a body-wide melting event. Later, between 10 and 14 Ma after CAI, an impact led to a catastrophic break-up and subsequent reassembly of the parent body. Thermal models of the interior evolution that are consistent with these estimates suggest that the IAB parent body underwent metal–silicate separation as a result of internal heating by short-lived radionuclides and accreted at around 1.4±0.1 Ma after CAIs with a radius of greater than 60 km.

The effects of shear deformation on planetesimal core segregation: Results from in-situ X-ray micro-tomography

It is well accepted that the Earth formed by the accretion and collision of small (10–100 km), rocky bodies called planetesimals. W-Hf isotopic evidence from meteorites suggest that the cores of many planetesimals formed within a relatively short time frame of ~3 My. While a very hot, deep magma ocean is generally thought to have been the driving mechanism for core formation in large planetary bodies, it inadequately explains differentiation and core formation in small planetesimals due to temperatures potentially being insufficient for wide-scale silicate melting to occur. In order for these planetesimals to differentiate within such a relatively short time without a magma ocean, a critical melt volume of the metallic (core-forming) phase and sufficient melt connectivity and grain size must have existed to attain the required permeability and lead to efficient core formation. Shear deformation may increase the connectedness of melt and the permeability, and thus could have been a major contributing factor in the formation of planetesimal cores. This deformation may have been caused by large impacts and collisions experienced by the planetesimals in the early solar system. The purpose of this work is to test the hypothesis that shear deformation enhances the connectivity and permeability of Fe-S melt within a solid silicate (olivine) matrix, such that rapid core formation is plausible. A rotational Drickamer apparatus (RDA) was used to heat and torsionally deform a sample of solid olivine + FeS liquid through six steps of large-strain shear deformation. After each deformation step, X-ray microtomographs were collected in the RDA to obtain in situ three-dimensional images of the sample. The resulting digital volumes were processed and permeability simulations utilizing the lattice Boltzmann method were performed to determine the effect of shear deformation on connectivity and permeability within the sample. The resulting permeabilities of the sample at various steps of deformation are the same within uncertainty and do not exhibit a change with increasing deformation. Additionally, the migration velocity calculated from the permeability of the sample is not high enough for segregation to take place within the time frame of ~3 My. In addition to further constraining the mechanism of core formation in planetesimals, the image processing techniques developed in this study will be of great benefit to future studies utilizing similar methods.

Neutron capture on Pt isotopes in iron meteorites and the Hf–W chronology of core formation in planetesimals

The short-lived 182Hf–182W isotope system can provide powerful constraints on the timescales of planetary core formation, but its application to iron meteorites is hampered by neutron capture reactions on W isotopes resulting from exposure to galactic cosmic rays. Here we show that Pt isotopes in magmatic iron meteorites are also affected by capture of (epi)thermal neutrons and that the Pt isotope variations are correlated with variations in 182W/184W. This makes Pt isotopes a sensitive neutron dosimeter for correcting cosmic ray-induced W isotope shifts. The pre-exposure 182W/184W derived from the Pt–W isotope correlations of the IID, IVA and IVB iron meteorites are higher than most previous estimates and are more radiogenic than the initial 182W/184W of Ca–Al-rich inclusions (CAI). The Hf–W model ages for core formation range from +1.6±1.0 million years (Ma; for the IVA irons) to +2.7±1.3Ma after CAI formation (for the IID irons), indicating that there was a time gap of at least ∼1Ma between CAI formation and metal segregation in the parent bodies of some iron meteorites. From the Hf–W ages a time limit of <1.5–2Ma after CAI formation can be inferred for the accretion of the IID, IVA and IVB iron meteorite parent bodies, consistent with earlier conclusions that the accretion of differentiated planetesimals predated that of most chondrite parent bodies.

Hf–W chronometry of core formation in planetesimals inferred from weakly irradiated iron meteorites

The application of Hf–W chronometry to determine the timescales of core formation in the parent bodies of magmatic iron meteorites is severely hampered by 182W burnout during cosmic ray exposure of the parent meteoroids. Currently, no direct method exists to correct for the effects of 182W burnout, making the Hf–W ages for iron meteorites uncertain. Here we present noble gas and Hf–W isotope systematics of iron meteorite samples whose W isotopic compositions remained essentially unaffected by cosmic ray interactions. Most selected samples have concentrations of cosmogenic noble gases at or near the lowermost level observed in iron meteorites and, for iron meteorite standards, have very low noble gas and radionuclide based cosmic ray exposure ages (<60Ma). In contrast to previous studies, no corrections of measured W isotope compositions are required for these iron meteorite samples. Their ε182W values (parts per 104 deviations from the terrestrial value) are higher than those measured for most other iron meteorites and range from −3.42 to −3.31, slightly elevated compared to the initial 182W/184W of Ca–Al-rich Inclusions (CAI; ε182W=−3.51±0.10). The new W isotopic data indicate that core formation in the parent bodies of the IIAB, IIIAB, and IVA iron meteorites occurred ∼1–1.5Myr after CAI formation (with an uncertainty of ∼1Myr), consistent with earlier conclusions that the accretion and differentiation of iron meteorite parent bodies predated the accretion of most chondrite parent bodies. One ungrouped iron meteorite (Chinga) exhibits small nucleosynthetic W isotope anomalies, but after correction for these anomalies its ε182W value agrees with those of the other samples. Another ungrouped iron (Mbosi), however, has elevated ε182W relative to the other investigated irons, indicating metal–silicate separation ∼2–3Myr later than in the parent bodies of the three major iron meteorite groups studied here.

Hf–W mineral isochron for Ca,Al-rich inclusions: Age of the solar system and the timing of core formation in planetesimals

Application of 182Hf– 182W chronometry to constrain the duration of early solar system processes requires the precise knowledge of the initial Hf and W isotope compositions of the solar system. To determine these values, we investigated the Hf–W isotopic systematics of bulk samples and mineral separates from several Ca,Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) from the CV3 chondrites Allende and NWA 2364. Most of the investigated CAIs have relative proportions of 183W, 184W, and 186W that are indistinguishable from those of bulk chondrites and the terrestrial standard. In contrast, one of the investigated Allende CAIs has a lower 184W/ 183W ratio, most likely reflecting an overabundance of r-process relative to s-process isotopes of W. All other bulk CAIs have similar 180Hf/ 184W and 182W/ 184W ratios that are elevated relative to average carbonaceous chondrites, probably reflecting Hf–W fractionation in the solar nebula within the first ∼3 Myr. The limited spread in 180Hf/ 184W ratios among the bulk CAIs precludes determination of a CAI whole-rock isochron but the fassaites have high 180Hf/ 184W and radiogenic 182W/ 184W ratios up to ∼14 ε units higher than the bulk rock. This makes it possible to obtain precise internal Hf–W isochrons for CAIs. There is evidence of disturbed Hf–W systematics in one of the CAIs but all other investigated CAIs show no detectable effects of parent body processes such as alteration and thermal metamorphism. Except for two fractions from one Allende CAI, all fractions from the investigated CAIs plot on a single well-defined isochron, which defines the initial ε 182W = −3.28 ± 0.12 and 182Hf/ 180Hf = (9.72 ± 0.44) × 10 −5 at the time of CAI formation. The initial 182Hf/ 180Hf and 26Al/ 27Al ratios of the angrites D’Orbigny and Sahara 99555 are consistent with the decay from initial abundances of 182Hf and 26Al as measured in CAIs, suggesting that these two nuclides were homogeneously distributed throughout the solar system. However, the uncertainties on the initial 182Hf/ 180Hf and 26Al/ 27Al ratios are too large to exclude that some 26Al in CAIs was produced locally by particle irradiation close to an early active Sun. The initial 182Hf/ 180Hf of CAIs corresponds to an absolute age of 4568.3 ± 0.7 Ma, which may be defined as the age of the solar system. This age is 0.5–2 Myr older than the most precise 207Pb– 206Pb age of Efremovka CAI 60, which does not seem to date CAI formation. Tungsten model ages for magmatic iron meteorites, calculated relative to the newly and more precisely defined initial ε 182W of CAIs, indicate that core formation in their parent bodies occurred in less than ∼1 Myr after CAI formation. This confirms earlier conclusions that the accretion of the parent bodies of magmatic iron meteorites predated chondrule formation and that their differentiation was triggered by heating from decay of abundant 26Al. A more precise dating of core formation in iron meteorite parent bodies requires precise quantification of cosmic-ray effects on W isotopes but this has not been established yet.

Percolative core formation in planetesimals

The percolation of liquid iron alloy through crystalline silicates potentially played an important role during core formation in small bodies of the early solar system, such as asteroids and planetesimals. This is because heat production by radioactive decay of 26Al and 60Fe, which is believed to be the main heat source in early-formed small planetary bodies, will initially cause Fe–S melts to form, well before the silicates start to melt. In order to test the feasibility of percolation, the effect of pressure on the dihedral angle between Fe–O–S liquid and olivine has been investigated from 1.5 to 5.0 GPa, a pressure range that is relevant for the interiors of large asteroids. Texturally-equilibrated dihedral angles increase from 54° to 98° over this pressure range. The dihedral angle reaches the critical value of 60° at 2–3 GPa depending on the olivine composition (Fe#). This change in dihedral angle is related to the oxygen content of Fe–O–S phase, which decreases with increasing pressure, because oxygen dissolved in the melt reduces the Fe–S melt/olivine interfacial energy. These results show that Fe–O–S liquid can form an interconnected network and percolate through silicate aggregates under conditions of high oxygen fugacity and low pressure, even when the melt fraction is small. Therefore, percolation is likely to have been the dominant core formation mechanism in small relatively-oxidised planetary bodies with a radius less than about 1300 km.

Correlated helium-3 and tungsten isotopes in iron meteorites: Quantitative cosmogenic corrections and planetesimal formation times

Core formation in planetesimals can, in principle, be dated using the short-lived 182Hf– 182W chronometer. However, it has been predicted that burnout and production of W isotopes by nuclear reactions can substantially modify the compositions in iron meteorites when exposed for several hundred million years (Myr) to galactic cosmic-rays. This may severely limit the use of the Hf–W system for determining chronologies of metal segregation as recorded in iron meteorites. Here we present the first experimental evidence of cosmogenic effects on W isotopes in two magmatic iron meteorites, Carbo (IID) and Grant (IIIAB). The 182W/ 184W ratio near the pre-atmospheric centre of the meteorites is lower by ∼ 0.5 epsilon compared to values near the pre-atmospheric surface. The 182W/ 184W ratio displays excellent correlations with the 3He concentration, which in turn provides a proxy for the fluence of the relevant cosmic-ray particles. Using new nuclear physics parameters, a first order correction for cosmic-ray effects on W isotopes is proposed based on the 3He concentration and on an independent exposure age of the meteorite. This method is then applied to other magmatic iron meteorites (Negrillos, Cape of Good Hope, Navajo and Arispe). When corrected for cosmogenic effects the W isotopic compositions of Carbo, Grant, Negrillos, Cape of Good Hope, and Navajo are similar to the initial composition recorded in Allende CAIs. This shows that at least some magmatic meteorites from groups IIAB, IID, IIIAB, and IVB segregated within less than 1.2 Myr of the Hf–W system closure in Allende CAIs. The isotopic variations among the samples indicate that the iron meteorites studied in this paper segregated over a time interval of ∼ 4 Myr, Carbo being the oldest iron meteorites of this study.

Early core formation in asteroids and late accretion of chondrite parent bodies: Evidence from 182Hf- 182W in CAIs, metal-rich chondrites, and iron meteorites

The 182Hf- 182W isotopic systematics of Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs), metal-rich chondrites, and iron meteorites were investigated to constrain the relative timing of accretion of their parent asteroids. A regression of the Hf-W data for two bulk CAIs, various fragments of a single CAI, and carbonaceous chondrites constrains the 182Hf/ 180Hf and ε W at the time of CAI formation to (1.07 ± 0.10) × 10 −4 and −3.47 ± 0.20, respectively. All magmatic iron meteorites examined here have initial ε W values that are similar to or slightly lower than the initial value of CAIs. These low ε W values may in part reflect 182W-burnout caused by the prolonged cosmic ray exposure of iron meteorites, but this effect is estimated to be less than ∼0.3 ε units for an exposure age of 600 Ma. The W isotope data, after correction for cosmic ray induced effects, indicate that core formation in the parent asteroids of the magmatic iron meteorites occurred less than ∼1.5 Myr after formation of CAIs. The nonmagmatic IAB-IIICD irons and the metal-rich CB chondrites have more radiogenic W isotope compositions, indicating formation several Myr after the oldest metal cores had segregated in some asteroids. Chondrule formation ∼2–5 Myr after CAIs, as constrained by published Pb-Pb and Al-Mg ages, postdates core formation in planetesimals, and indicates that chondrites do not represent the precursor material from which asteroids accreted and then differentiated. Chondrites instead derive from asteroids that accreted late, either farther from the Sun than the parent bodies of magmatic iron meteorites or by reaccretion of debris produced during collisional disruption of older asteroids. Alternatively, chondrites may represent material from the outermost layers of differentiated asteroids. The early thermal and chemical evolution of asteroids appears to be controlled by the decay of 26Al, which was sufficiently abundant (initial 26Al/ 27Al >1.4 × 10 −5) to rapidly melt early-formed planetesimals but could not raise the temperatures in the late-formed chondrite parent asteroids high enough to cause differentiation. The preservation of the primitive appearance of chondrites thus at least partially reflects their late formation rather than their early and primitive origin.

Laser ablation ICP-MS study of IIIAB irons and pallasites: constraints on the behaviour of highly siderophile elements during and after planetesimal core formation

We report the concentration of the platinum group elements (PGE) in addition to the highly siderophile elements (HSE) Re and Au, obtained using LA-ICP-MS, in spatially resolved FeNi-metal (kamacite and taenite) from a suite of IIIAB irons and Brenham main group pallasite (MGP). These samples are products of fractional crystallization and define a coherent magmatic trend, from the least evolved (Henbury and Wabar) to the most evolved (Mount Edith). Fractional crystallization continued after segregation of the pallasite parent melt, and incorporation of olivine into this metal melt did not affect the highly siderophile element systematics. Solid metal–liquid metal partition coefficients indicate the following compatibility: (1) highly compatible (Re, Os and Ir), (2) moderately compatible (Pt, Ru and Rh), and (3) incompatible (Pd and Au). This compatibility sequence is broadly consistent with the melting point systematics of the HSE. The highly fractionated HSE pattern of the evolved IIIAB and Brenham pallasite indicates that nonmetallic elements such as S play a fundamental role in the evolution of planetisimal core. Taenite–kamacite partition coefficients ( D t/ k ) illustrate that all of the HSE enter preferentially taenite during subsolidus partitioning and that subsolidus partitioning is comparable between magmatic and nonmagmatic irons. D t/ k appears to be independent of the physical conditions prevailing on the parent bodies and the light element molar fraction in the bulk composition, but instead the controlling factors on D t/ k behaviour seems to be a combination of the degree of atomic symmetry coupled with atomic radius.

182Hf-182W isotope systematics of chondrites, eucrites, and martian meteorites: Chronology of core formation and early mantle differentiation in Vesta and Mars

Abstract The timescale of accretion and differentiation of asteroids and the terrestrial planets can be constrained using the extinct 182Hf-182W isotope system. We present new Hf-W data for seven carbonaceous chondrites, five eucrites, and three shergottites. The W isotope data for the carbonaceous chondrites agree with the previously revised 182W/184W of chondrites, and the combined chondrite data yield an improved ϵW value for chondrites of −1.9 ± 0.1 relative to the terrestrial standard. New Hf-W data for the eucrites, in combination with published results, indicate that mantle differentiation in the eucrite parent body (Vesta) occurred at 4563.2 ± 1.4 Ma and suggest that core formation took place 0.9 ± 0.3 Myr before mantle differentiation. Core formation in asteroids within the first ∼5 Myr of the solar system is consistent with the timescales deduced from W isotope data of iron meteorites. New W isotope data for the three basaltic shergottites EETA 79001, DaG 476, and SAU 051, in combination with published 182W and 142Nd data for Martian meteorites reveal the preservation of three early formed mantle reservoirs in Mars. One reservoir (Shergottite group), represented by Zagami, ALH77005, Shergotty, EETA 79001, and possibly SAU 051, is characterized by chondritic 142Nd abundances and elevated ϵW values of ∼0.4. The 182W excess of this mantle reservoir results from core formation. Another mantle reservoir (NC group) is sampled by Nakhla, Lafayette, and Chassigny and shows coupled 142Nd-182W excesses of 0.5–1 and 2–3 ϵ units, respectively. Formation of this mantle reservoir occurred 10–20 Myr after CAI condensation. Since the end of core formation is constrained to 7–15 Myr, a time difference between early silicate mantle differentiation and core formation is not resolvable for Mars. A third early formed mantle reservoir (DaG group) is represented by DaG 476 (and possibly SAU 051) and shows elevated 142Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.5–0.7 ϵ units and ϵW values that are indistinguishable from the Shergottite group. The time of separation of this third reservoir can be constrained to 50–150 Myr after the start of the solar system. Preservation of these early formed mantle reservoirs indicates limited convective mixing in the Martian mantle as early as ∼15 Myr after CAI condensation and suggests that since this time no giant impact occurred on Mars that could have led to mantle homogenization. Given that core formation in planetesimals was completed within the first ∼5 Myr of the solar system, it is most likely that Mars and Earth accreted from pre-differentiated planetesimals. The metal cores of Mars and Earth, however, cannot have formed by simply combining cores from these pre-differentiated planetesimals. The 182W/184W ratios of the Martian and terrestrial mantles require late effective removal of radiogenic 182W, strongly suggesting the existence of magma oceans on both planets. Large impacts were probably the main heat source that generated magma oceans and led to the formation metallic cores in the terrestrial planets. In contrast, decay of short-lived 26Al and 60Fe were important heat sources for melting and core formation in asteroids.

Core formation in planetesimals triggered by permeable flow.

The tungsten isotope composition of meteorites indicates that core formation in planetesimals occurred within a few million years of Solar System formation. But core formation requires a mechanism for segregating metal, and the 'wetting' properties of molten iron alloy in an olivine-rich matrix is thought to preclude segregation by permeable flow unless the silicate itself is partially molten. Excess liquid metal over a percolation threshold, however, can potentially create permeability in a solid matrix, thereby permitting segregation. Here we report the percolation threshold for molten iron-sulphur compounds of approximately 5 vol.% in solid olivine, based on electrical conductivity measurements made in situ at high pressure and temperature. We conclude that heating within planetesimals by decay of short-lived radionuclides can increase temperature sufficiently above the iron-sulphur melting point (approximately 1,000 degrees C) to trigger segregation of iron alloy by permeable flow within the short timeframe indicated by tungsten isotopes. We infer that planetesimals with radii greater than about 30 km and larger planetary embryos are expected to have formed cores very early, and these objects would have contained much of the mass in the terrestrial region of the protoplanetary nebula. The Earth and other terrestrial planets are likely therefore to have formed by accretion of previously differentiated planetesimals, and Earth's core may accordingly be viewed as a blended composite of pre-formed cores.