Coral Substrate Research Articles

Rapid bioerosion in a tropical upwelling coral reef.

Coral reefs persist in an accretion-erosion balance, which is critical for understanding the natural variability of sediment production, reef accretion, and their effects on the carbonate budget. Bioerosion (i.e. biodegradation of substrate) and encrustation (i.e. calcified overgrowth on substrate) influence the carbonate budget and the ecological functions of coral reefs, by substrate formation/consolidation/erosion, food availability and nutrient cycling. This study investigates settlement succession and carbonate budget change by bioeroding and encrusting calcifying organisms on experimentally deployed coral substrates (skeletal fragments of Stylophora pistillata branches). The substrates were deployed in a marginal coral reef located in the Gulf of Papagayo (Costa Rica, Eastern Tropical Pacific) for four months during the northern winter upwelling period (December 2013 to March 2014), and consecutively sampled after each month. Due to the upwelling environmental conditions within the Eastern Tropical Pacific, this region serves as a natural laboratory to study ecological processes such as bioerosion, which may reflect climate change scenarios. Time-series analyses showed a rapid settlement of bioeroders, particularly of lithophagine bivalves of the genus Lithophaga/Leiosolenus (Dillwyn, 1817), within the first two months of exposure. The observed enhanced calcium carbonate loss of coral substrate (>30%) may influence seawater carbon chemistry. This is evident by measurements of an elevated seawater pH (>8.2) and aragonite saturation state (Ωarag >3) at Matapalo Reef during the upwelling period, when compared to a previous upwelling event observed at a nearby site in distance to a coral reef (Marina Papagayo). Due to the resulting local carbonate buffer effect of the seawater, an influx of atmospheric CO2 into reef waters was observed. Substrates showed no secondary cements in thin-section analyses, despite constant seawater carbonate oversaturation (Ωarag >2.8) during the field experiment. Micro Computerized Tomography (μCT) scans and microcast-embeddings of the substrates revealed that the carbonate loss was primarily due to internal macrobioerosion and an increase in microbioerosion. This study emphasizes the interconnected effects of upwelling and carbonate bioerosion on the reef carbonate budget and the ecological turnovers of carbonate producers in tropical coral reefs under environmental change.

Pollution and coral damage caused by derelict fishing gear on coral reefs around Koh Tao, Gulf of Thailand

Most lost fishing gear is made of non-biodegradable plastics that may sink to the sea floor or drift around in currents. It may remain unnoticed until it shows up on coral reefs, beaches and in other coastal habitats. Stony corals have fragile skeletons and soft tissues that can easily become damaged when they get in contact with lost fishing gear. During a dive survey around Koh Tao, a small island in the Gulf of Thailand, the impact of lost fishing gear (nets, ropes, cages, lines) was studied on corals representing six different growth forms: branching, encrusting, foliaceous, free-living, laminar, and massive. Most gear (>95%) contained plastic. Besides absence of damage (ND), three categories of coral damage were assessed: fresh tissue loss (FTL), tissue loss with algal growth (TLAG), and fragmentation (FR). The position of the corals in relation to the fishing gear was recorded as either growing underneath (Un) or on top (On), whereas corals adjacent to the gear (Ad) were used as controls. Nets formed the dominant type of lost gear, followed by ropes, lines and cages, respectively. Branching corals were most commonly found in contact with the gear and also around it. Tubastraea micranthus was the most commonly encountered coral species, either Un, On, or Ad. Corals underneath gear showed most damage, which predominantly consisted of tissue loss. Fragmentation was less common than expected, which may be related to the low fragility of T. micranthus as dominant branching species. Even if nets serve as substrate for corals, it is recommended to remove them from reefs, where they form a major component of the plastic pollution and cause damage to corals and other reef organisms.

Artistic endeavors strive to save coral reefs

The gallery of artist Colleen Flanigan is harder to visit than most. On one clear day in January, Flanigan suited up in scuba gear at the Sand Dollar Sports Dive Shop in Cozumel, Mexico, swam 60 meters out to sea, and dove 4 meters down to her latest installation. Zoe–A Living Sea Sculpture is a loosely helical structure, formed by welded rebar and steel mesh that arch 6 feet upward and root firmly in the ocean floor. Years in the making, the work is “living” because Flanigan hopes it will continue to make itself. Artist Colleen Flanigan’s Zoe–A Living Sea Sculpture in Cozumel, Mexico, is both underwater art and coral restoration experiment. Here, master scuba trainer Ernesto Martinez helps attach found coral fragments. Image courtesy of Colleen Flanigan. By running low-voltage electricity through the metalwork, using a technology called Biorock (1), Flanigan creates a zone of higher pH that attracts minerals to accrete on the structure. Next, she attaches coral fragments that can then cement themselves. Coral larvae and other organisms could also colonize Zoe , taking it in unpredictable directions of texture and color. The idea, although still controversial, is that the Biorock structure both provides a mineral substrate for corals to grow on and generates an electrical field that enhances the ability of coral and other marine organisms to grow faster. Around the world, coral reefs are threatened by local stressors, such as overfishing and pollution, and global ones, such as warming waters and ocean acidification (2). Last year marked the end of a 3-year bleaching event during which high ocean temperatures in many reefs across the globe caused corals to expel their symbiotic algae, draining the corals of color and depriving them of their primary energy source (3). Looking to draw attention to these bleak trends, …

Plastic nets as substrate for reef corals in Lembeh Strait, Indonesia

Plastic nets as substrate for reef corals in Lembeh Strait, Indonesia

Spatial Variation in a Shallow-Water Sponge-Dominated Reef in Timor-Leste (East Timor)

Coral abundance is declining on many coral reef ecosystems worldwide, which in some locations has resulted in regime shifts where coral has been replaced by other benthic organisms. Although transitions to sponge-dominated states have been reported from a number of locations across the world after coral declines, they are typically dominated by only one or few species. However, there is increasing evidence that high-diversity sponge-dominated reefs may persist in the future as reefs experience ocean warming and acidification, because sponges appear generally more resilient than corals. Here we quantify spatial variation in a highly unusual shallow-water (<5 m and deeper) coral reef system at Jaco Island in Timor-Leste (East Timor) that is dominated by diverse sponge assemblages and has little coral. We found a total of 33 sponge species (based on Operational Taxonomic Units) in a total sampling area of 15 m2. We found that sponges were the dominant biological group at this site and covered approximately 29% of the benthos, with live coral, algae, and dead substrate cover at 7%, 7%, and 54%, respectively. Multivariate analysis identified that sponge assemblages varied significantly over a small spatial scale (100 m). Our findings differ from those from the generally low-diversity sponge reefs that have been reported elsewhere as coral has declined and may be more typical of future sponge-dominated reefs. Therefore, future studies to understand how this reef functions may provide insights into how future high-diversity sponge reefs might function.

Environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting the increasing occurrence of shark-human interactions around a fast-developing Indian Ocean island

Understanding the environmental drivers of interactions between predators and humans is critical for public safety and management purposes. In the marine environment, this issue is exemplified by shark-human interactions. The annual shark bite incidence rate (SBIR) in La Réunion (Indian Ocean) is among the highest in the world (up to 1 event per 24,000 hours of surfing) and has experienced a 23-fold increase over the 2005–2016 period. Since 1988, 86% of shark bite events on surfers involved ocean-users off the leeward coast, where 96% of surfing activities took place. We modeled the SBIR as a function of environmental variables, including benthic substrate, sea temperature and period of day. The SBIR peaked in winter, during the afternoon and dramatically increased on coral substrate since the mid-2000s. Seasonal patterns of increasing SBIR followed similar fluctuations of large coastal shark occurrences (particularly the bull shark Carcharhinus leucas), consistent with the hypothesis that higher shark presence may result in an increasing likelihood of shark bite events. Potential contributing factors and adaptation of ocean-users to the increasing shark bite hazard are discussed. This interdisciplinary research contributes to a better understanding of shark-human interactions. The modeling method is relevant for wildlife hazard management in general.

Linking fish species traits to environmental conditions in the Jakarta Bay-Pulau Seribu coral reef system

Coral reefs around the globe have been subjected to a wide range of stressors. In the present study, fish species were recorded across a pronounced in-to-offshore gradient in the Jakarta Bay-Pulau Seribu reef system. In addition to this, fish species traits were obtained from FishBase. RLQ analysis revealed a significant association between fish species traits and environmental variables. Fish species associated with perturbed, inshore waters were resilient to disturbance, had higher mortality rates, higher growth rates and mainly consumed animals. In contrast, fish species associated with less perturbed, mid- and offshore waters had greater life expectancy, higher age at maturity, greater life span, greater generation time and mainly fed on plants or plants and animals. Eutrophication, pollution and physical destruction of coral substrate in inshore waters has thus selected for a low biomass and depauperate fish community characterised by fast growing and short lived species.

ANALISIS KADAR PROTEIN CACING LAOR (POLYCHAETA) DARI PERAIRAN PULAU AMBON

Background: Laor is a variety of types of marine worms (Polychaeta) that appear periodically in large numbers at sea level at any given time and consumed by the Ambon island community. Environmental factors that affect Laor's presence are light, salinity, and temperature. Laor lives on a rocky substrate such as those found in the waters of the village of Latuhalat, the village of Allang, and the village of Hutumuri.&#x0D; Method: The method used to analyze the protein content of Laor worm is Kjedhal method and the data is analyzed with nonparametric statistic, and if different then further test is done by using LSD (Least Significance Difference) test.&#x0D; Results: At the time of Laor sampling in the village of Latuhalat, Allang village, and Hutumuri village, wavy surface conditions, water in low tide, the weather is sunny, and the three villages have sandy coral substrate. While the environmental chemical physics factor in Latuhalat village shows salinity is 33o / ○○, temperature is 30oC, and pH is 5.23. Allang Village has a salinity of 30o / ○○, a temperature of 29oC, and a pH of 7.55. The village of Hutumuri has a salinity of 32o / ○○, a temperature of 28oC, and a pH of 5.50. The results of protein content analysis showed that the average Laor protein level from Latuhalat village was 14.293%, Allang village 15.0497%, and Hutumuri village 10.952%. While the average protein level in Laor worms showed Laor worm protein levels from each village were significantly different.&#x0D; Conclusion: The average of Laor worm protein from Ambon Island waters is significantly different from that of Latuhalat 14.293%, alang 15.0497% village, and Hutumuri village 10.952%. The average Laor worm protein level tested with parametric statistic showed Laor worm protein levels from each village were significantly different.

Impact of an experimental eutrophication on the processes of bioerosion on the reef: One Tree Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The components of bioerosion were investigated during ENCORE (The Effect of Nutrient Enrichment on Coral Reefs) over 2years of controlled additions of dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus. The study was carried out at One Tree Island, southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Rates of microbioerosion and external erosion by grazing were significantly higher at the enriched sites than at the control sites. Rates of accretion by coralline algae were also significantly higher at enriched sites. In contrast, rates of macroboring were not significantly different between enriched and control sites.This study highlights the importance of improving water quality on the reef to reduce rates of bioerosion given that quantities of dead coral substrates have recently substantially increased as a result of coral bleaching (Hughes et al., 2015) and several Crown of Thorns plagues (Fabricius et al., 2010; De'ath et al., 2012), on the Great Barrier Reef.

Biology of Incidental Catch Sea Star Stellaster childreni Gray, 1840 (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), from Malaysian Borneo Exclusive Economic Zone.

Sea star (class Asteroidea, phylum Echinodermata) is one of the most successful marine organisms inhabiting a wide range of habitats. As one of the key stone species, sea stars are responsible for maintaining much of the local diversity of species within certain communities. Malaysian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Resource Survey had been carried out from 16th Aug to 6th Nov 2015 and one of the invertebrate by-catch organisms is sea star Stellaster childreni Gray, 1840. This study documents morphological characters and diet of the sea star, besides providing brief descriptions of the habitats based on particle size analysis and vessel log data sheet. A total of 217 individuals had been examined throughout this study. Fragments of flora and fauna were found in the gut including Mollusca (gastropod, bivalves, and scaphopods), sponge seagrass, and seaweed as well as benthic Foraminifera. Stellaster childreni were found at depth of 45 m to 185 m in the South China Sea off Sarawak Malaysia, with various sea bottom substrata. Approximately 41% of S. childreni were found at a mixture of sandy and muddy substratum, followed by mixture of sandy and coral (19.3%), muddy substratum (17.5%), coral substratum (11.5%), and sandy areas (10.6%). The widely distributed sea star on different types of sea beds suggested healthy deep sea ecosystem; thus Malaysia should explore further potential fisheries resources in the EEZ off Sarawak coast.

Coral-excavating sponge Cliona delitrix: current trends of space occupation on high latitude coral reefs

The recent increase in abundance of coral-excavating sponges is a threat to the health of coral reefs. However, the distribution and growth of these sponges are poorly documented on high latitude reefs where corals live in marginal environmental conditions. In this study, we characterize the current trends of space occupation of Cliona delitrix on high latitude reefs (26°N) in southeast Florida. C. delitrix densities were significantly higher on the deepest habitat of this reef tract (the outer reef) in response to a higher availability of coral substratum. Sponge growth rates increased with depth, and in relation to presence of tunicates and absence of macroalgae living in the sponge–coral interaction band. Conversely, coral tissue loss was similar between habitats, regardless of the fouling organisms present in the band between sponge and coral. On high latitude reefs, C. delitrix preferred massive scleractinian coral species as substratum, similar to tropical reefs, but its inclination for specific coral species varied. The outer reef sites (deepest habitat) are most vulnerable to C. delitrix colonization. Reef habitats with higher coral densities and more available dead coral may continue to suffer the greatest levels of sponge bioerosion.

Point measurements of ambient biological noise before, during, and after multiple underwater detonation events over coral substrate off the southern coast of Oahu, Hawai

Measurements were taken of background noise at the U.S. Navy's Pu‘uloa Underwater Detonation Range off the south coast of O‘ahu during a U.S. Navy underwater explosive training exercise in shallow water (10-18 m) where distance from the detonation site, charge size, and explosive composition were controlled. The autonomous recording unit was deployed approximately 1500 m from the detonation location. The combined data from the paired low (-220 dB re 1 V /μPa) and high (-170 dB re 1 V /μPa) sensitivity hydrophones gives an approximately 100 dB dynamic range view of each event. Each trial consisted of three replicate events per charge weight (2.2, 4.5, and 8.6 kg) for a total of nine explosive events over the coral substrate. An analysis of the background noise environment immediately before and after each replicate is presented using metrics such as spectral probability density. Results are considered in the context of typical coral reef noise including discussion of snapping shrimp noise (one of the dominant features of the soundscape) before and after each event. [Work supported by U.S. Pacific Fleet.]

Sound exposure level and energy spectral density of underwater explosions in shallow water over a coral substrate off the southern coast of O`ahu, Hawai`i

This work presents the sound exposure levels (SEL) and energy spectral densities (ESD) from underwater explosions measured in shallow water (10-18 m) at distances of 500 to 1500 m at the Pu’uloa Underwater Detonation Range off the southern coast of Oahu. Nine explosive charges, with TNT-equivalent weights of 2.2 to 8.6 kg, were detonated on a seabed characterized by a thin sand layer over limestone. The ESD of the measurements are characterized by high propagation loss in the frequency ranges 50 to 350 Hz. Previous studies have shown that this is a common characteristic of this environment with the upper and lower frequencies directly related to the geoacoustic properties of the seabed and the waveguide geometry. Unlike measurements collected in sandy environments, where SEL agreed with empirical predictions, the SEL for these measurements differ by up to 30 dB. To understand the mechanisms responsible for these lower than expected levels, a geoacoustic model for the seabed is developed using these frequencies and utilized in broadband modelling simulations. The SEL will also be calculated for these simulations and compared to the measured levels. [Research supported by Pacific Fleet with partial support from the Office of Naval Research.]

Assessment of the effectiveness of natural coral fragmentation as a dispersal mechanism for coral reef‐boring sponges

AbstractEastern Pacific reefs are mostly made up of interlocking coral branches of Pocillopora, which are easily broken by physical forces associated with heavy swells and winds. In this study we investigated the potential of these coral fragments to enable propagation of boring sponges. For this, we quantified the frequency of occurrence and diversity of boring sponges in fragments of corals recently trapped among the branches of live colonies, and later tested the hypothesis that these sponges colonize new branches of corals. Nearly 80% of the coral colonies investigated had coral fragments among their branches, and 69% of these coral fragments contained boring sponges (11 species), some of these sponges in reproduction (23% of them carried oocytes). To test whether sponges inhabiting coral fragments could colonize new branching corals we transplanted them to healthy branches, and to branches whose living tissue was mechanically eliminated to simulate damage produced by grazing and death after bleaching and other causes of coral tissue mortality. All the transplanted coral fragments cemented to each new colony by means of calcification, and of the three sponge species tested (Cliona vermifera, Cliona tropicalis and Thoosa mismalolli) only C. vermifera was able to colonize both new living branches (26.9%) and cleaned branches (65.5%). The apparent capability of C. vermifera to colonize by direct contact may be another key ability of this species to maintain high frequency of occurrence in Pacific coral reefs. However, although C. tropicalis and T. mismalolli were not able to colonize new coral substrata by direct contact, coral fragments have the potential to contribute to local persistence of these sponges and to their dispersal, both by asexual (fragments) and sexual means (transport of sexual products). The present findings may partly explain the current increase of excavating sponges on deteriorating reefs with a large availability of dead branching corals.

Variation in the growth and survival of the tropical vermetid gastropod Ceraesignum maximum is driven by size, habitat, and density

The vermetid Ceraesignum maximum is a sessile tube-dwelling snail with a wide geographic distribution that can strongly reduce the growth and survival of corals, alter coral morphology, and shift coral species composition. Thus, this species has the potential to drive dramatic changes in coral reef ecosystems; yet, very little basic demographic information exists for C. maximum; nor do we know factors that potentially contribute to variation in vital rates. This study estimated individual growth (change in shell aperture diameter) and survival of focal (tagged) vermetids (n = 297) over 646 days, to test hypotheses that growth and/or survival rates were size-dependent, density-dependent, and/or habitat-dependent. This study was conducted on 80 haphazardly selected patch reefs, split evenly among eight discrete sites. The design also incorporated an experimental density reduction (e.g. on half the study reefs at each site divers reduced the densities of vermetids). Vermetid growth rates decreased with body size, and the slope of this relationship was steeper for reefs with experimentally reduced densities. Vermetid growth decreased weakly with local biomass of vermetids (i.e. estimated biomass within a 20 cm radius of focal individuals) but did not vary with local substrate composition. Vermetid survival increased with body size and local biomass; the relationship with biomass was steeper for reefs where vermetid densities had been experimentally reduced. Survival was also greater on living coral Porites lobata (where coral growth covered longitudinal extensions of vermetid shells) relative to dead coral substrate (where vermetid shells extensions remained exposed). These data suggest little scope for regulation of vermetid population growth via direct density dependence in demographic rates. However, given that vermetids can kill corals, and vermetid survival probabilities appear to depend upon coral cover, it is predicted that vermetids may experience cyclical dynamics that are coupled to the dynamics of living coral.

How does the proliferation of the coral-killing sponge Terpios hoshinota affect benthic community structure on coral reefs?

Terpios hoshinota is an encrusting sponge and a fierce space competitor. It kills stony corals by overgrowing them and can impact reefs on the square kilometer scale. We investigated an outbreak of T. hoshinota in 2014 at the island of Mauritius to determine its impacts on coral community structure. Surveys were conducted at the putative outbreak center, an adjacent area, and around the island to determine the extent of spread of the sponge and which organisms it impacted. In addition, quadrats were monitored for 5 months (July–December) to measure the spreading rates of T. hoshinota and Acropora austera in areas both with and without T. hoshinota. The photosynthetic capabilities of T. hoshinota and A. austera were also measured. Terpios hoshinota was well established, covering 13% of an estimated 416 m2 of available hard coral substrate at the putative outbreak center, and 10% of an estimated 588 m2 of available hard coral substrate at the adjacent area. The sponge was observed at only one other site around Mauritius. Terpios hoshinota and A. austera increased their planar areas by 26.9 and 13.9%, respectively, over five months. No new colonies of T. hoshinota were recorded in adjacent sponge-free control areas, suggesting that sponge recruitment is very low during austral winter and spring. The sponge was observed to overgrow five stony corals; however, it showed a preference for branching corals, especially A. austera. This is the first time that a statistically significant coral substrate preference by T. hoshinota has been reported. Terpios hoshinota also had a significantly higher photosynthetic capacity than A. austera at irradiance >500 μmol photons m−2 s−1, a possible explanation for its high spreading rate. We discuss the long-term implications of the proliferation of T. hoshinota on community structure and dynamics of our study site.

Identification and Mapping of Marine Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in Shallow Coastal Waters with WorldView-2 Satellite Data

ABSTRACT Tin, H.; Garcia, R.; O'Leary, M., and Fotedar, R., 2016. Identification and Mapping of Marine Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in Shallow Coastal Waters with WorldView-2 Satellite Data. In: Vila-Concejo, A.; Bruce, E.; Kennedy, D.M., and McCarroll, R.J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Coastal Symposium (Sydney, Australia). Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 75, pp. 1287 - 1291. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Marine submerged aquatic vegetation (MSAV) naturally occurs on rubble and dead coral substrates in temperate and tropical coastal regions. During the growing season, MSAV develops to form dense canopy seaweed beds that play a vital role in coastal marine ecosystems and offer great potential to chemical, pharmaceutical, and bio-energy industries. At present, the total biomass and the distribution of the MSAV beds along the coast of Western Australia (WA) are not fully identified and quantified. Therefore, the application of satellite remote sensing data with hi...

Sponge erosion under acidification and warming scenarios: differential impacts on living and dead coral.

Ocean acidification will disproportionately impact the growth of calcifying organisms in coral reef ecosystems. Simultaneously, sponge bioerosion rates have been shown to increase as seawater pH decreases. We conducted a 20-week experiment that included a 4-week acclimation period with a high number of replicate tanks and a fully orthogonal design with two levels of temperature (ambient and +1°C), three levels of pH (8.1, 7.8, and 7.6), and two levels of boring sponge (Cliona varians, present and absent) to account for differences in sponge attachment and carbonate change for both living and dead coral substrate (Porites furcata). Net coral calcification, net dissolution/bioerosion, coral and sponge survival, sponge attachment, and sponge symbiont health were evaluated. Additionally, we used the empirical data from the experiment to develop a stochastic simulation of carbonate change for small coral clusters (i.e., simulated reefs). Our findings suggest differential impacts of temperature, pH and sponge presence for living and dead corals. Net coral calcification (mgCaCO3 cm(-2) day(-1) ) was significantly reduced in treatments with increased temperature (+1°C) and when sponges were present; acidification had no significant effect on coral calcification. Net dissolution of dead coral was primarily driven by pH, regardless of sponge presence or seawater temperature. A reevaluation of the current paradigm of coral carbonate change under future acidification and warming scenarios should include ecologically relevant timescales, species interactions, and community organization to more accurately predict ecosystem-level response to future conditions.

Efficacy of Coral Sand for Removal of and Bacteriophage under Saturated Flow Conditions.

Knowledge of how effectively microbes are transported through porous media is useful for water resource/wastewater management. Despite much research having been done to characterize microbial contaminant transport through various sedimentary materials, very little study has been made on coral sand, such as constitutes the primary substrate of many Pacific atolls. We conducted a set of laboratory column experiments as a preliminary examination of how effective coral sand is at attenuating model pathogens J6-2 and MS2 bacteriophage (phage) under saturated flow conditions mildly representative of field conditions at the Bonriki freshwater lens, South Tarawa, Kiribati. The very poorly sorted gravelly sand coral substrate tested proved very effective at attenuating the bacterial tracer, and spatial removal rates of between 0.02 and 0.07 log cm were determined for J6-2. The ability to determine precise removal rates for MS2 phage was compromised by the use of a plastic apparatus, although the evidence weights toward coral sand being less effective at attenuating MS2 phage than it is . Further research is required to fully assess the ability of coral sand to remove pathogens and to explore how this medium could be engineered into cost-effective water/wastewater treatment solutions on Pacific atolls. The phage data from this work highlight the limitations of using plastic apparatus in experiments targeted at characterizing the fate and transport of viruses.

Transplantation of storm-generated coral fragments to enhance Caribbean coral reefs: A successful method but not a solution

&lt;span&gt;En respuesta a la dramática pérdida de corales constructores de arrecifes y la continua falta de recuperación, un proyecto de pequeña escala de transplante de corales, al cual se le dio seguimiento por 12 años, se inició en el Caribe (Islas Vírgenes de EUA) en 1999. Los principales objetivos fueron (1) identificar fuentes de colonias de coral para el trasplante, que no produjeran daños a los arrecifes, (2) evaluar la viabilidad del trasplante de fragmentos de coral generados por tormentas, y (3) desarrollar un método simple y barato para transplantar fragmentos que pudiera ser realizado por la comunidad local. La meta última era aumentar la abundancia de especies constructoras de arrecife amenazadas en los arrecifes locales. Fragmentos de coral producidos por tormenta de dos especies constructoras de arrecife amenazadas [Acropora palmata y A. cervicornis (Acroporidae)] y otras especies de crecimiento rápido [Porites porites (Poritidae)] fueron recolectadas en ambientes no adecuados para la supervivencia de fragmentos de coral y se trasplantaron a los arrecifes degradados. Fajitas de nylon inerte fueron utilizadas para unir los fragmentos de corales transplantados al sustrato de coral muerto. La sobrevivencia de 75 colonias de referencia y de 60 transplantadas fueron monitoreadas por más de 12 años. Sólo el 9% de las colonias estaban vivas tras 12 años, sin presencia de A. cervicornis, el 3% de los transplantes de A. palmata y el 18% de las colonias de referencia de Acropora. El 13% de los transplantes de P. porites y el 7% de las colonias de referencia sobrevivieron. El desprendimiento físico resultó en la pérdida del 56% de las colonias, mientras que el 35% murió en el lugar. Solamente A. palmata mostró una diferencia en sobrevivencia entre los trasplantes y las colonias de referencia, eso fue solo en el primer año. La ubicación fue un factor en la sobrevivencia sólo para las colonias de referencia de A. palmata y después de 10 años. A pesar de que los métodos y los conceptos fueron probados efectivamente en el campo por más de 12 años de estudio, no mostraron ser la solución. Ninguna estrategia de conservación va a ser efectiva hasta que se delimiten y sean entendidos, mitigados o eliminados los factores intrínsecos y/o extrínsecos que conducen a las altas tasas de mortalidad.&lt;/span&gt;