Coral Reef Ecosystems Research Articles

Modelling the role of marine protected area in biodiversity conservation

This study explored the anthropogenic stressors of a coral habitat and predicted the role of a proposed MPA around coral habitat on biodiversity conservation. The study was conducted in the Saint Martin's Island which is located in the south east coastal area of Bangladesh. Data on anthropogenic stressors were collected through intensive stakeholder survey and the role of MPA in biodiversity conservation was explored by utilizing Allometric Trophic Network model. This study identified about 16 anthropogenic stressors for the coral reef ecosystem. Increasing fishing pressure significantly reduced the species biomass while reduced fishing pressure increased the biomass of species. Biomass of the species in the system with no fishing area increased significantly (3–6%) while compared with the species biomass of an area without fishing restriction. Our simulations found that imposing fishing restriction in an exploited system significantly improve the species standing stock. Our model outputs suggest that declaration of MPA is beneficial for conservation of biodiversity. However, for sustainable implementation of conservation initiatives a proper management framework is necessary integrating diverse stakeholders.

The δ15N in Orbicella faveolata organic matter reveals anthropogenic impact by sewage inputs in a Mexican Caribbean coral reef lagoon

Coral-reef ecosystems provide essentials services to human societies, representing the most important source of income (e.g., tourism and artisanal fishing) for many coastal developing countries. In the Caribbean region, most touristic and coastal developments are in the vicinity of coral reefs where they may contribute to reef degradation. Here we evaluated the influence of sewage inputs in the coral reef lagoon of Puerto Morelos during a period of 40 years (1970–2012). Annual δ15N values were determined in the organic matter (OM) extracted from coral skeletons of Orbicella faveolata. Average protein content in the OM was 0.33 mg of protein g−1 CaCO3 (±0.10 SD) and a 0.03% of OM relative to the sample weight (n =100). The average of N g−1 CaCO3 was 0.002% (± 0.001 SD). The results showed an increase (p < 0.001) in δ15N over the time, positively correlated with population growth derived from touristic development. These findings emphasize the need to generate urban-planning remediation strategies that consider the impact on natural environments, reduce sewage pollution, and mitigate local stressors that threaten the status of coral-reef communities in the Caribbean region.

Irrelationship between live coral cover and reef fish: an interim study of marine habitat dynamic on Mandangin Islands

Most coral reef ecosystems with high coverage of living coral would escalate the reef fish abundance and species richness as one of the correlatable communities to the coral reef. However, reef fish could only utilize one of the coral reef ecosystems to provide to the reef fish community that still withstand and adapt to those conditions. This study aims to assess the coral reef ecosystem quality on Mandangin Islands and the correlation between the benthic substrate to the reef fish structure. Coral reef ecosystem was assessed using Line Intercept Transect and Underwater Visual Census. A linear model or regression analysis was built to identify the key predictors driving factor in the ecosystem. Rock, Sand, and Rubble are the highest benthic substrate around Mandangin Islands. Reef fish have a high abundance along the observation site with exhaustive trophic level, high major functional group, broad bodied size with high abundance small to moderate bodied-size. Rock has a positive correlation to reef fish abundance; Sand has possibilities to escalate species richness, whereas live coral negatively correlates to reef fish. Historically Mandangin Islands contained a healthy coral reef ecosystem that degraded after years, yet reef fish withstand and adapt to the Mandangin Islands’ degraded coral reef ecosystems. Rock is coral that loses several of its function, especially as direct nourishment. This study showed that reef fish should be considered as one of the primary data to strengthen the decision-making of Integrated Coastal Management and Oil Spill Contingency Plans by the Oil and Gas Company.

Does depth divide? Variable genetic connectivity patterns among shallow and mesophotic Montastraea cavernosa coral populations across the Gulf of Mexico and western Caribbean.

Despite general declines in coral reef ecosystems in the tropical western Atlantic, some reefs, including mesophotic reefs (30-150 m), are hypothesized to function as coral refugia due to their relative isolation from anthropogenic stressors. Understanding the connectivity dynamics among these putative refugia and more degraded reefs is critical to develop effective management strategies that promote coral metapopulation persistence and recovery. This study presents a geographically broad assessment of shallow (<30 m) and mesophotic (>30 m) connectivity dynamics of the depth-generalist coral species Montastraea cavernosa. Over 750 coral genets were collected across the Northwest and Southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, Cuba, and Belize, and ~5000 SNP loci were generated to quantify high-resolution genetic structure and connectivity among these populations. Generally, shallow and mesophotic populations demonstrated higher connectivity to distant populations within the same depth zone than to adjacent populations across depth zones. However, exceptions to this pattern include the Northwest Gulf of Mexico and the Florida Keys which exhibited relatively high vertical genetic connectivity. Furthermore, estimates of recent gene flow emphasize that mesophotic M. cavernosa populations are not significant sources for their local shallow counterparts, except for the Northwest Gulf of Mexico populations. Location-based differences in vertical connectivity are likely a result of diverse oceanographic and environmental conditions that may drive variation in gene flow and depth-dependent selection. These results highlight the need to evaluate connectivity dynamics and refugia potential of mesophotic coral species on a population-by-population basis and to identify stepping-stone populations that warrant incorporation in future international management approaches.

Location assessment for coral reef transplantation program in Karawang Waters, Indonesia

Environmental degradation caused by anthropogenic activities and climate change has an impact on the habitat of organisms and biodiversity. Coral reefs are one of the sensitive ecosystems that are strongly influenced by environmental changes. Poor environmental conditions in the Java Sea and global warming are the main factors that affect the sustainability of coral reef ecosystems in Karawang waters. Coral reef transplantation is a method that has long been used to revitalize coral reef ecosystems. This study aims to assess the ideal location used for coral reef transplantation program in Karawang Waters. Through a field survey, the percentage of coral reef cover, dead coral, hard coral, algae, and biotic and abiotic components at several sampling points in 2019 to 2022 was obtained. The sampling location with the poor conditions are considered to be used as transplant locations. Based on analysis result, only 1 out of 3 locations that are suitable to be used as locations for coral reef transplantation programs.

The success of coral Acropora sp. transplantation with various methods in Raja Ampat Regency, Indonesia

Climate change and anthropogenic pressures have caused massive damage and degradation of coral reef ecosystem services in almost all countries in the Indian Ocean. The status of coral reefs at 1,067 sites in Indonesia is included in the poor category with 386 sites (36.18%) and the reefs in the moderate category with 366 sites (34.3%). The condition, area, and function of this coral reef ecosystem can be restored through rehabilitation activities using the transplant method. This study aimed to determine the success of coral Acropora sp transplantation in two different methods in Raja Ampat Regency, i.e., Yensawai Village. The research was conducted from September to December 2021 using PVC and iron racks. The increase in length of coral fragments was measured using a caliper and survival was calculated for the number of coral fragments at the end of the study. The results showed that coral fragments with PVC racks had a growth rate of 0.67±0.54 mm/day and a survival rate of 81.25%, while those on iron racks had a growth rate of 0.64±0,66 mm/day and a survival rate of 90%. Both methods showed a high coral survival rate (>80%). T-test statistical analysis revealed no apparent variance between the two approaches (p= 0.85). Our findings suggest that both methods are suitable for use in Yensawai Village.

Marine heatwaves in the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea: their mechanisms and impacts on shallow and mesophotic coral ecosystems

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) World Heritage Area and adjacent Coral Sea Marine Park are under serious threat from global climate change. This study used Daily Optimally Interpolated Sea Surface Temperature (DOISST) data to identify major marine heatwaves (MHWs) that have occurred in this region over the last three decades (1992–2022). We then used Himawari-8 (H-8) SST data to map significant MHW events that occurred between 2015 and 2022. We investigated the mechanisms underlying the MHWs, assessed thier impact on shallow and mesophotic coral reef ecosystems and identified potential coral refugia. MHWs in this region have increased in frequency, intensity and spatial extent. El Niño, especially when it is in phase with positive Indian Ocean Dipole, was the key remote driver leading to intense MHWs. However, the more recent strong MHWs (e.g., 2017 and 2022) occurred in the abscence of these climatic events, signifying the impacts of long-term climate change and local drivers. We also found that reduced wind speed and shoaling mixed layer depth, often together with reduced cloudiness, were the main local drivers pre-conditioning these MHWs. Anomalous air-sea heat flux into the ocean, mainly controlled by shortwave solar radiation (cloudiness) and latent heat flux (wind), was the most constant contributor to the 2015–16 and 2019–20 MHW events. However, local oceanographic dynamics, especially horizontal advection and turbulent mixing, played important roles in MHW heat budgets. This study confirmed that shallow-water coral bleaching severity was positively related to the cumulative MHW intensity in the 2015–16 and 2019–20 MHW events. We identified shallow reefs along the path of the North Queensland Current as potential coral refugia from bleaching because of the cooler waters upwelled from the ocean current. We also found that, except during weather events such as tropical cyclones, mesophotic reefs in the Coral Sea Marine Park may be less susceptible to severe bleaching as the MHWs were more confined within the shallow mixed layer.

Who cares about coral? The biological species concept and ‘cumulative intrinsic value’ in cross-cultural perspective

This paper examines the intrinsic and instrumental value of corals, and coral reefs, from the epistemological perspectives of Western conservation biologists and Pacific coastal fishers. It uses data on local language names (‘folk taxonomies’) from several language groups to understand the salience, or perceived value, of corals and coral reef fishes for the speakers of those languages. In all of the folk taxonomies examined, there are very few local language names for corals or reef-associated fishes in the most species-rich families (gobies, blennies, damselfishes, and butterflyfishes). This is interesting particularly because one of the primary rationales for Western conservation interest in Indo-Pacific coral reefs is the ‘cumulative intrinsic value’ of the large number of biological species associated with these ecosystems, irrespective of their other values, including fishery production. The ‘weight’ of this cumulative intrinsic value underpins a moral mandate for transnational conservation intervention, typically in the form of marine protected areas, most of which impose a short- to medium-term economic cost on people who are already very poor. The related and widely used Western cultural construct of ‘iconic’ is also investigated. The paper examines various implications of the large differences between Western scientific and Pacific Islander attributions of value to corals and coral reef ecosystems, including in the context of their importance for fishery production and food (or nutrition) security. I also discuss the apparent lack of (a) reflexivity about the social construction of science and (b) curiosity about the environmental knowledge and values of Indo-Pacific coastal fishers, among many in the Western transnational conservation community.

Distinct coral environments shape the dynamic of planktonic Vibrio spp.

BackgroundCoral reefs are one of the most biodiverse and productive ecosystems, providing habitat for a vast of species. Reef-building scleractinian corals with a symbiotic microbiome, including bacteria, archaea, viruses and eukaryotic microbes, are referred to coral holobionts. Among them, coral diseases, mainly caused by Vibrio spp., have significantly contributed to the loss of coral cover and diversity. Habitat filtering across the globe has led to a variety structure of marine bacterial communities. Coral species, quantity and characteristics are significant differences between the Xisha Islands and Daya Bay (Guangdong Province). Thus, the Vibrio communities may be distinct between coral rich and poor areas.ResultsThrough comparison of Vibrio dynamics between coral-rich (Xisha Islands) and coral-poor (Daya Bay) locations, we uncovered differences in Vibrio abundance, diversity, community composition and assembly mechanisms associated with corals. The higher abundance of Vibrio in coral rich areas may indicate a strong interaction between vibrios and corals. V. campbellii, Paraphotobacterium marinum and V. caribbeanicus were widely distributed in both coral rich and poor areas, likely indicating weak species specificity in the coral-stimulated growth of Vibrio. Random-forest prediction revealed Vibrio species and Photobacterium species as potential microbial indicators in the coral rich and coral poor areas, respectively. Ecological drift rather than selection governed the Vibrio community assembly in the Xisha Islands. Comparatively, homogenizing selection was more important for the Daya Bay community, which may reflect a role of habitat filtration.ConclusionThis study revealed the different distribution pattern and assembly mechanism of Vibrio spp. between coral rich and poor areas, providing the background data for the research of Vibrio community in coral reef areas and may help the protection of coral reef at the biological level. The main reasons for the difference were different number and species of corals, environmental (e.g., temperature) and spatial factors. It reflected the strong interaction between Vibrio and corals, and provided a new perspective for the investigation of Vibrio in coral reef ecosystem.

Localized inshore warming, acidification, and elevated particulate organic matter across a coupled mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystem in La Parguera, Puerto Rico

Localized inshore warming, acidification, and elevated particulate organic matter across a coupled mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystem in La Parguera, Puerto Rico

Economic Analysis for Sustainable Management of Marine Protected Areas in Ujung Kulon National Park (UKNP)

The protection of ecosystems and natural resources continues to be a top priority for the management of the Marine Conservation Area (MCA) of Ujung Kulon National Park (UKNP). Managers haven't given management of the economic and social use issues much thought. In reality, if it is properly managed, the MCA UKNP's economic potential can contribute to raising the economic well-being of the neighbourhood. Estimating the MCA UKNP's economic value and examining its economic and financial viability are the two goals of this manuscript. Survey research is used as the research methodology, together with overall economic valuation and financial and economic feasibility study. The findings of the study are as follows: 1) The mangrove environment, which is worth IDR1,215,105,470,571, and the coral reef ecosystem, which is worth IDR1,390,406,119,529, together make up the overall economic valuation of the MCA UKNP, which is IDR2,605,511,590,100. 2) The financial and economic feasibility analysis's findings indicate that the financial NPV is 1,963,392,508,016 and the economic NPV is 1,927,390,315,754 &gt; 0, the financial Net B/C value is 21,28 and the economic Net B/C value is 19,30 &gt; 1.0, and the financial IRR value is 39.54 and the economic IRR is 39.43% &gt; 20% (MARR). The analyses' findings support the MCA UKNP's declaration that its determination was practicable.

Tracking coral loss in the Spermonde Archipelago of Indonesia: 32 years of satellite monitoring from 1990 to 2022

ABSTRACT An alarming amount of damage has occurred to coral reefs in Indonesia, with the causes of such damage either from human activities (anthropogenic causes) or natural processes. This study investigated the long-term dynamic changes in coral reef habitats in eight selected islands in the Spermonde archipelago, Indonesia, using remote sensing and historical information. A series of Landsat images recorded in different years (i.e. 1990, 1996, 2002, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2018, 2019, and 2022) were used to map the benthic habitats of each island (i.e. live coral, dead coral, seagrass, sand, rubble, mix bottom). The analysis estimated a total of 303.47 hectares or 76.26% loss of live coral in studied islands since 1990. In contrast, there was a substantial increase in dead coral algae and rubble, estimated at around 108.63 and 101.91 hectares, respectively. Strong and similar negative coefficient determination between live coral cover with both dead coral algae (R2 = 0.96, Y = -2.95) and rubble (R2 = 0.94, Y = -2.85) suggested that human activities (e.g. destructive fishing activities, damage from anchors, coral mining) and natural processes (e.g. sedimentation, coral bleaching, coral diseases, and coral predation) played comparable roles in coral reef degradation in Spermonde Archipelago. Furthermore, this study revealed that destructive fishing occurred on the island regardless it was inhabited or uninhabited and was influenced by the extent of its live coral cover. This study overall highlighted the ongoing degradation and factors contributing to coral loss in the Spermonde archipelago. Further research and monitoring efforts are necessary to understand the mechanisms driving the decline in live coral and the factors contributing to increases in dead coral algae and rubble. This knowledge will aid in developing targeted conservation strategies and management plans to protect the coral reef ecosystem in the Spermonde Archipelago and other affected regions in Indonesia.

Sustainability status of Karang Jeruk reef ecosystem assessed by RAPFISH.

Karang Jeruk, a coral reef ecosystem located in a marine protected area in Central Java Province, Indonesia, has undergone multiple rehabilitation efforts in the past. Yet, the result has not been comprehensive so far. It is therefore necessary to sustain the reef which requires a planned and synergistic effort by considering several dimensions. This study aims to analyze the level of sensitivity and level of sustainability of the reef using RAPFISH 2013 using R software, a multidimensional scaling approach. The results showed that in general, the dynamics of the sustainability status of Karang Jeruk coral reef management in each dimension seen from the year period analyzed do not show major differences. As for multidimensional, the sustainability status of Karang Jeruk ecosystem management varies in each dimension measured. The sustainability index with the highest order was the ecological dimensions (80.08) with the attribute of coralfish diversity being the most influential (3.88%). The second order is the technological dimensions (59.42) with the attribute of fishing gear as an attribute that must be considered (9.92%). The third place is the social dimensions (44.83) with the attribute of the number of fishery households (RTP) as the most influential (8.00%). The fourth place is the institutional dimensions (29.41) with the attribute that has the most influence being the private role attribute (6.13%). Finally, fifth is the economic dimensions (25.23) with the attribute alternative livelihood being the most influential (61.6%). Hence, constructive priorities are needed for dimensions with low sustainability index values to achieve equilibrium on all dimensions.

The Species Diversity of the Genus Echinogorgia in Xiamen Bay and Its New Record in China

The rapid reduction in coral reefs worldwide has led to increasing attention toward protecting and restoring coral reef ecosystems. Coral reefs not only have a rich diversity of coral species, but they can also provide important products and services for human beings. One type of coral, Echinogorgia, has important scientific research value and application prospects. To understand the diversity of coral species, diving surveys were conducted in Xiamen Bay in 2017 and 2021, and a total of 928 samples were collected. Taxonomic research was conducted using methods such as morphological identification through electron microscopy. Specific phylogenetic trees of the COI gene, mtMuts gene, and ITS1 gene were analyzed. There were 47 specimens of Echinogorgia coral included among 928 samples. Fifteen species of Echinogorgia were identified, including Echinogorgia ramosa, Echinogorgia flexilis, Echinogorgia russelli, Echinogorgia ramulosa, and Echinogorgia gracilima (which represent the newly recorded species in the waters of China). This study increases the species diversity records in China and contributes to new geographical distribution information of Echinogorgia worldwide. The primary data also serve as the baseline data for long-term biomonitoring programs to estimate the status of octocorals in Xiamen Bay.

Community structure and abundance of coral fish in the Pulau Panggang Ward Area, Seribu Islands Marine National Park, DKI Jakarta

Reef fish community is a biotic component of the coral reef ecosystem that can be utilized as a marine biological resource. Coral fish make the coral reef ecosystem their habitat in shelter, feeding ground and nursery ground. The existence and diversity of reef fish is determined by the condition of the coral reefs. The research in Panggang Island Village, Seribu Islands Marine National Park, DKI Jakarta at a depth of 7 meters. The purpose of this study was to determine the community structure and abundance of reef fish in Panggang Island Village. The method used in this research is a belt transect . The results of field observations showed that the water quality in Panggang Island Village including Panggang Island, Pramuka Island, Semak Daun Island, Kotok Besar Island, Air Island and Gosong Karang Lebar was still within normal limits for the growth and development of reef fish. The composition of reef fish in Panggang Island Village consists of 21 families, 60 genera and 108 species. The highest abundance was found on Air Island while the lowest was found on Bushleaf Island. The most dominant tribe is the Pomacentridae tribe. The reef fish that have the highest abundance are Pomacentrus lepydogenys and Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura.

Nilai Ekonomi Ekosistem Laguna di Negeri Ihamahu, Pulau Saparua, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah

The existence of ecosystems in the water lagoon of Ihamahu Country has an important role for the people of Ihamahu Village. The study was conducted on July 17, 2020 with primary and secondary data collection. The sampling method used is purposive sampling a total of 10 people. The people of Iamahu Village always catch marine life in the Laguna ecosystem and its surroundings with used several fishing gear. Then, total economic value of Laguna ecosystem at Iamahu Village amount Rp 183.189.557 with used direct as Capture Fisheries and research activities amount Rp 45.620.000. Indirectly the benefits of coral reef ecosystems in Ihamahu waters for absorbs carbon content amount Rp 98.156.407. After that, option value amount Rp 471.150 an values that represent the usefulness of coral reef ecosystems (in laguna) at the future will be good directly or indirect, existence value through Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) amount Rp 34.380.000, and Inheritance Value Rp 4.562.000,-.

THE IMPACT OF SPIDER MODEL OF CORAL TRANSPLANTATION ON FISH ABUNDANCE IN THE WATERS OF BOTUTONUO, GORONTALO PROVINCE

This study aims to determine the abundance of fish in the recovery location of the coral reef ecosystem in Botutonuo waters, Gorontalo Province. The research was conducted in February - May 2023. The research location consisted of 2 sites, namely site A which had coral transplants with spider coral skeletons and site B which had no transplants (natural coral reefs). Observations were made 3 times with an interval of 2 weeks. Reef fish data was collected using the Underwater Visual Census (UVC) method, with a 50 m x 5 m line transect. Calculation of data using fish abundance rum. The results showed that the number of fish species found in the Botutonuo waters of Gorontalo Province at site A was 89 species with a total individual abundance of 2,429 ind/m2, while at site B there were 69 species with a total individual abundance of 2,054 ind/m2.

Hard coral cover in the Halmahera waters: Spatial distribution and environmental factors

Differences in the geographical location and geomorphology of small islands contribute to variations in aquatic environmental factors, spatial distribution of corals, and percentage of hard coral cover. This study was conducted in the open waters of the Termadoreh Islands in the middle of the Maluku Sea, and the semi-enclosed waters of Buli Bay. This study aimed to examine the distribution of hard coral cover in the Halmahera coral ecoregion with respect to differences in geographic location, geomorphology and water quality. This study found that the spatial distribution of hard corals differed among sites. Spatially, the total area of shallow water habitat at the study site showed the largest area of coral habitat in Termadoreh, at 1313.99 ha. Hard coral cover and coral diversity differed between sites and depths. Higher hard coral cover was found on the coral islands of Teluk Buli and lower on the volcanic islands of the Termadoreh Archipelago. The highest percentage of hard coral cover per site was found on Maitara Island (site MaT05) at 71.60%, and the lowest percentage of cover was found on Tidore Island (site TiT08) at 14.9%. An optimal temperature, salinity, and brightness parameters support the high percentage of hard coral cover. The highest coral diversity value in the Termadoreh Islands correlated with water brightness. This study is important for recording the conditions of hard corals in the Halmahera reef ecoregion. The results of this study provide data on the benefits of a coral reef management plan for the Halmahera coral ecoregion. We also provide recommendations regarding the life forms of hard corals that are appropriate for making coral seeds to restore and rehabilitate coral reef ecosystems at the research sites.

Computational Thinking for Science: Positioning coding as a tool for doing science

AbstractThe role of computation in science is ever‐expanding and is enabling scientists to investigate complex phenomena in more powerful ways and tackle previously intractable problems. The growing role of computation has prompted calls to integrate computational thinking (CT) into science instruction in order to more authentically mirror contemporary science practice and to support inclusive engagement in science pathways. In this multimethods study, we present evidence for the Computational Thinking for Science (CT+S) instructional model designed to support broader participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) pathways by (1) providing opportunities for students to learn CT within the regular school day, in core science classrooms; and (2) by reframing coding as a tool for developing solutions to compelling real‐world problems. We present core pedagogical strategies employed in the CT+S instructional model and describe its implementation into two 10‐lesson instructional units for middle‐school science classrooms. In the first unit, students create computational models of a coral reef ecosystem. In the second unit, students write code to create, analyze, and interpret data visualizations using a large air quality dataset from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to understand, communicate, and evaluate solutions for air quality concerns. In our investigation of the model's implementation through these two units, we found that participating students demonstrated statistically significant advancements in CT, competency beliefs for computation in STEM, and value assigned to computation in STEM. We also examine evidence for how the CT+S model's core pedagogical strategies may be contributing to observed outcomes. We discuss the implications of these findings and propose a testable theory of action for the model that can serve future researchers, evaluators, educators, and instructional designers.

CORAL REEF TRANSPLANT SUCCESS RATE IN BONETAMBU ISLAND, SPERMONDE ARCHIPELAGO

The world's coral reefs are under threat from human activities through pollution and habitat changes. This condition is influenced by several factors, such as human activities and natural phenomena. Many efforts have been made by humans to overcome or repair coral reef ecosystems that have been damaged. One of the efforts made is to carry out coral transplants. The main goal of coral transplantation is to improve the quality of coral reefs such as increasing live coral cover, biodiversity and uniqueness of coral topography. The stages of the method carried out in the research include mapping the bottom of the waters (sounding); mapping conditions of water cover; transplantation process and monitoring. This study used the spider skeleton method for the transplant media. The results showed that the percentage of live coral cover ranged from 10% - 25% and it was found that rubble cover dominated up to &gt;70%. During the monitoring process, it was found that algae dominated almost all of the transplant media. The high nutrients and the lack of algae-eating fish resulted in a high algae cover found on the surface of the structure and had an impact on the death of the transplanted corals. Efforts are being made to regularly clean algae to increase the survival rate and replant dead coral