Waste Cooking Oil Research Articles

Enzymatic Transesterification Using Different Immobilized Lipases and its Biodiesel Effect on Gas Emission

Biodiesel, a third-generation bio-fuels, offering several advantages over regular diesel fuel. Waste cooking oil (WCO) emerges as an ideal feedstock due to its availability and easy accessibility. In this work, biodiesel is utilized from two different types of immobilized lipases: Rhizomucor miehei lipase (RMIM) and Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB). The impact of the molar ratio of oil to methyl acetate (1:3-1:12) was evaluated for both lipases, and the resultant biodiesel was tested in diesel engine. The enzymatic transesterification was carried out in ultrasonic assistance and the results showed that the greatest yield of 81.20% at 45℃, using CALB as a biocatalyst, 1.8% (w/v) lipase and oil to methyl acetate molar ratio of 1:12 within 3 hours. Triacetin, by-product was determined their concentration for each molar ratio and analyzed using FTIR range of 500cm-1 to 4000cm-1, revealing a significant absorption peak at 1238.90cm-1. Biodiesel was blended with commercial diesel fuel in varying quantities of 7, 10, and 20% by volume (B20). The results were compared to Industrial Diesel Fuel 7% (B7) and Commercial Diesel Fuel 10% (B10). NOx and CO2 emission drops as the percentage of diesel/biodiesel blends increases, supporting WCO as a cost-effective biodiesel feedstock with low petrol pollution.

Effect of Bio-Oils and Wastewater Sludge on the Performance of Binders and Hot Mix Asphalt with High Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Content.

Waste Cooking Oil (WCO), Soy Oil (SO), and Wastewater Sludge (WWS) have great potential to increase reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) content for economic and environmental benefits. This study explored the effects of SO and WCO on rutting, fatigue cracking, and low-temperature cracking performance of binders and Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) with high RAP content. The potential effect of WWS on the performance and compaction efforts of high RAP content mixes at a 10 °C (50 °F) lower compaction temperature than the control compaction temperature was also investigated. The results indicated that 85% of the RAP binders can be incorporated while maintaining similar performance compared to the control by using 15% SO or 12.5% WCO as a rejuvenator with 2.5% virgin binder. Adding 1% WWS by weight of the total binder improved the binder's rheological properties, the mix's cracking performance, and the mix's density at lower compaction temperatures.

Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engines Using Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil with Cetane Number Improver

Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engines Using Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil with Cetane Number Improver

Development of eco-friendly and high-content rubberized asphalt modified by waste cooking oil desulfurized crumb rubber and waste crumb rubber

To conserve non-renewable petroleum-based asphalt resources and address the limitations of incorporating high-content waste crumb rubber (CR) in conventional crumb rubber modified asphalt (CRMA), this study examines the feasibility of utilizing waste cooking oil desulfurized crumb rubber (ODR) in conjunction with CR to prepare high-content rubberized asphalt (HCRA). The basic, chemical, rheological, and asphalt-aggregate adhesion properties of HCRA, both with and without a small quantity of styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) copolymer modifier, were evaluated using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR), asphalt-aggregate pull-off test, contact angle test, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results showed that the modification involving ODR and CR primarily constitutes a physical process, rather than a chemical reaction, as evidenced by the lack of new functional groups. Similarly, the addition of an SBS modifier predominantly results in physical modifications accompanied by minor chemical interactions. The improved desulfurization degree of ODR diminishes the elastic stiffening effect of CR on the matrix asphalt at the high-temperature (low-frequency) domain and reduces adhesion properties between HCRA and aggregates, while enhancing the flexibility of HCRA at the low-temperature (high-frequency) domain. The inclusion of a small quantity of SBS modifier allows HCRA to demonstrate high-temperature performance and adhesion properties on par with CRMA, alongside superior low-temperature stress relaxation, phase stability, storage stability, and water damage resistance. These attributes indicate that the HCRA with a small quantity of SBS modifier has a broader service temperature range compared to CRMA. This study achieves approximately 33.3 % replacement of asphalt materials while preserving the performance of rubberized asphalt.

Daur Ulang Minyak Jelantah: Pengelolaan Limbah Domestik Rumah Tangga melalui Pembuatan Lilin Aromaterapi di Desa Sarirogo, Sidoarjo, Jawa Timur

The community service activity program that we carried out entitled MIGUNANI (Processing Used Cooking Oil Waste into Valuable Goods) involving the women of Sarirogo Village, Sidoarjo Regency, East Java was held on August 15, 2024. The purpose of this activity is to reduce the risk of environmental pollution due to used cooking oil waste by processing it into aromatherapy candles. Thus, used cooking oil waste, which can initially pollute the environment, can be turned into valuable goods and can become a business idea for additional income for mothers. The output targets produced are aromatherapy candles and devotion journals. In realizing the output targets, the methods used include socialization, training and direct practice to increase the creativity of participants. The hope of the activity program that we have carried out is that the participants will have knowledge and insight in processing used cooking oil waste into valuable goods and creative business ideas.

Catalytic Potential of Singgora Roof Tiles in Transesterification for Sustainable Biodiesel

The study centred around the uitilization of Singgora roof tiles as a heterogeneous catalyst in the production of biodiesel via the transesterification process. The motivation behind this choice stems from the non-recyclable nature of Singgora roof tiles and their potential applicability in biodiesel synthesis. To enhance the catalytic properties, zinc oxide (ZnO) is incorporated using the wet impregnation technique during catalyst preparation. The catalyst was characterized by XRF and SEM-EDX. A two-step transesterification method is employed to mitigate the levels of free fatty acid (FFA) in waste cooking oil (WCO). The initial step involves treating the WCO with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to reduce FFA. Subsequently, the Singgora roof tiles catalyst is utilized in the second step. A high yield of FAMEs, specifically 96.96%, was achieved under the optimal conditions, which included a methanol-to- oil ratio of 12:1, a catalyst concentration of 1 wt.%, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, and a reaction time of 2 hours. The quality of the biodiesel produced was analyzed according to biodiesel standards such as ASTM D6751, EN 14214, and AOCS, and it met all the required standards. The study demonstrates the potential of using Singgora roof tiles as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production, offering a promising approach to repurposing non-recyclable materials and advancing sustainable biodiesel production methods.

Unveiling the composite rejuvenator efficacy on performance improvement of asphalt binder including high RAP contents

Since the incompatibility between crumb rubber (CR) and reclaimed asphalt binder (RAB) can cause sedimentation and limit its application, this study employed waste cooking oil (WCO) to pre-treat CR particles at different CR/WCO ratios, and assessed its impact on performance of asphalt binders including 30 % and 50 % RABs. Anti-aging and rejuvenation potentials of corresponding composite rejuvenators in binder blends were explored by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) tests, while the performance of corresponding binder blends was evaluated by bending beam rheometer (BBR), linear amplitude sweep (LAS), and multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR) tests. Furthermore, correlation analyses were performed to explore the relationships between the chemical and rheological parameters with a significance level below 0.05. The results confirmed the rejuvenation efficacy of composite rejuvenators in high RAB, and improvement in the critical low temperature of binder blends to a higher performance grade (PG) level compared to the non-treated CR modified binder. In addition, the fatigue cracking resistance was improved at the strain levels higher than 4 % in LAS test. However, the pre-swelled CR fairly compromised the rutting performance of binder blends compared to non-treated CR, its performance was still better than virgin binder. The correlation analysis suggested that it is possible to use chemical parameters as indicators for evaluating certain rheological properties.

Cold flow properties of biodiesel from waste cooking oil and a new improvement method

Biodiesel despite its positive advantages when using it as a fuel in replacement of diesel, suffers a major drawback in the cold flow properties (CFP). During winters, plugging of the filters as well as crystallization of the fatty acid are two of the leading problems that makes the fuel to not reach injectors and the combustion chamber and therefore the engine does not start. Cold flow properties of waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCOB) through the reduction of cloud point (CP), pour point (PP) and the cold filter plugging point (CFPP) where investigated in this work. The effectiveness of an approaches using the combination of two techniques, controlled winterization and addition of fatty acids 2-ethylhexyl esters (FAEhE) to reduce CP, PP and CFPP was studied. The change in CP, PP and CFPP corresponded to a decrease in the saturated ethyl esters content. A reduction of the palmitic and stearic acid ethyl esters content of 20,63 % and 8.64 % respectively was found. There was not significant effect on the fuel properties due to changes in the chemical composition of liquid fractions. However, using a Factorial Design and Response Surface Methodology optimization, the lowest CP, PP and CFPP for WCOB biodiesel could be obtained working with a winterization temperature of −5 °C, adding a 10 % of FAEhE and cooling during 30 min.

Investigation of Novel Transition Metal Loaded Hydrochar Catalyst Synthesized from Waste Biomass (Rice Husk) and Its Application in Biodiesel Production Using Waste Cooking Oil (WCO)

The decarbonization of transportation plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change, and biodiesel has emerged as a promising solution due to its renewable and eco-friendly nature. However, in order to maintain the momentum of the “green trend” and ensure energy security, an ecologically friendly pathway is important to produce efficient biodiesel. In this work, activated carbon (AC) obtained from rice husk (RH) is hydrothermally prepared and modified through cobalt transition metal for catalyst support for the transesterification process. The physicochemical characteristics of the synthesized catalysts are examined using XRD, FTIR, SEM and EDS, TGA, and BET, while the produced biodiesel is also characterized using Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). To optimize the transesterification process, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) are produced by the conversion of waste cooking oil. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is used to validate temperature (75 °C), the methanol-to-oil molar ratio (1:9), catalyst weight percentage (2 wt.%), and retention time (52.5 min). The highest conversion rate of waste cooking oil (WCO) to biodiesel was recorded at 96.3% and tested as per American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. Based on the results, it is clear that cobalt-loaded rice husk-based green catalyst (RHAC-Co) enhanced catalytic activity and yield for biodiesel production. Further research should focus on engine performance evaluation and scaling up of the catalyst by optimizing it for the industrial scale.

Biomass-incorporated KNO3-C/γ-Al2O3 bifunctional catalyst for efficient biodiesel production

Biodiesel has gained attention as a promising renewable and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, which necessitated the development of an effective and eco-friendly catalyst for transesterification processes. Herein, this research reported the development of a highly efficient bifunctional catalyst by incorporating carbon from oil palm leaves (OPLs) into KNO3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, synthesized through a facile method, to concurrently catalyze the waste cooking oil (WCO) transesterification and free fatty acids (FFAs) esterification in a one-pot reaction. Proposed Box-Behnken Design (BBD) model's ideal conditions, experimentally yielded an average of 93.74 % biodiesel yield. Meanwhile, analysis revealed that the catalyst with 30 wt% KNO3 loadings and 1.0 g oil palm leaves dosage (OPLD), calcined at 700 °C, has a BET surface area of 46.93 m2/g and exhibited the presence of K2O, K2O2 and K2C2 active species on the catalyst surface. In addition to exhibiting high total basicity and acidity of 2.9 mmol/g and 2.1 mmol/g, respectively, environmental studies suggested this catalyst generated less waste, highlighting its significant potential of being used for efficient biodiesel production. Therefore, present research introduces a new approach for synthesizing a fruitful and ecofriendly bifunctional catalyst to attain one-pot biodiesel production from low-grade oils.

Direct hydrogenation of natural oils to fatty alcohols enabled by an alcoholysis/hydrogenation relay strategy and two-phase solvent system.

Direct hydrogenation of natural oils to fatty alcohols was achieved via a relay strategy involving alcoholysis of natural oils followed by hydrogenation of fatty acid esters. A two-phase system was used to avoid catalyst poisoning by glycerol. This protocol is suitable for plant oils, animal fats and waste cooking oil.

Effect of different configurations of hybrid nano additives blended with biodiesel on CI engine performance and emissions

The use of nano additives to improve the cold properties of biodiesel is encouraged by its drawbacks and incompatibility in cold climate. Waste cooking oil (WCO) was transesterified to create biodiesel. A 20% by volume was used for combination of diesel and methyl ester. Current study aims to evaluate diesel engine emissions and performance. TiO2, alumina, and hybrid TiO2 + Al2O3 nanoparticles are added to WCO biodiesel mixture at 25 mg/liter. When B20 combined with nano materials such as TiO2, Al2O3, and hybrid nano, the highest declines in brake specific fuel consumption were 4, 6, and 11%, respectively. As compared to biodiesel blend, the largest gains in thermal efficiency were 4.5, 6.5, and 12.5%, respectively, at maximum engine output power. Introduction of TiO2, Al2O3, and hybrid nano particles to B20 at 100% load resulted in the highest decreases in HC concentrations up to 7, 13, and 20%, and the biggest reductions in CO emissions, up to 6, 12, and 16%. Largest increases in NOx concentrations at full load were about 7, 15, and 23% for B20 + 25TiO2, B20 + 25 Al2O3, and B20 + 25TiO2 + 25 Al2O3, respectively. Up to 8, 15, and 21% less smoke was released, correspondingly, which were the largest reductions. Recommended dosage of 25 ppm alumina and 25 ppm TiO2 achieved noticeable improvements in diesel engine performance, combustion and emissions about B20.

Co-immobilization of magnesium precursor and Candida rugosa lipase on alumina via covalent bonding for biodiesel production

Catalyst development is one of the most challenging aspects in biodiesel production due to the compatibility issue with the feedstocks and catalyst poisoning upon exposure to process conditions. In the present research, chemoenzymatic catalyst was prepared by impregnation of magnesium aluminate (MA) on alumina support, modifying the support using activating agent, and immobilization of Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) onto the support. The optimum immobilization condition was resulting in 85.07 % of activity recovery of immobilized lipase, equivalent to 30.53 % of immobilization efficiency. The catalysts were characterized through XRD, FTIR, FESEM-EDX, NAA and CO2-TPD confirming the mixture of AlO(OH), magnesium aluminate (MA), (MgNO3)2 and Mg2+ on the support. CRL/L-lysine/MA showed remarkable improvement in thermal stability (40 − 70℃), solvents tolerance (ethanol, methanol, isopropanol, tert-butanol), and storage stability at 30 ℃, as compared to free CRL. CRL/L-lysine/MA successfully produced biodiesel yield up to 87.10 % at 200.71 rpm of agitation speed, 13.58 % (w/w) of water content, 10 h reaction time, 15 % (w/w) of catalyst loading, at 50 ℃, using 1:12 of oil to methanol molar ratio, and retaining 46.60 % of biodiesel yield after six cycle. The CRL/L-lysine/MA demonstrated novel catalysts characteristics comprising chemical and biological active species on a single support for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO).

Enhancing reactivity-controlled compression ignition engine performance: A response surface methodology approach with ammonium hydroxide-waste cooking oil biodiesel optimization

The focus on ammonium hydroxide, biodiesels and their combustion technology has garnered significant attention in pursuing carbon-neutral and carbon-free fuels to address greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and mitigate global warming. Low-temperature combustion (LTC) has been introduced as an alternative method to conventional compression ignition (CI) combustion. Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) can be achieved by introducing highly reactive waste cooking oil methyl ester (WCOME) oil directly into the manifold in intervals of 10% energy and injecting low-reactive ammonium hydroxide at 20%–50%. Utilizing the response surface methodology (RSM) approach, it was determined that for optimal operation in RCCI mode, an ideal ammonium hydroxide energy sharing (AHES) of 43% would account for the varying parameters and their effects on emissions and performance. The results of the experiments predicted a brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) of 34.85% and a brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) of 10.69 MJ/kWh. Meanwhile, a notable decrease in exhaust emissions was observed for HC, CO, CO2, NO x and smoke by 41.54%, 38.89%, 48.89%, 51.27% and 65.80% respectively when compared to conventional biodiesel combustion (CBC). The experimental result at maximum load operation with an AHES of 50% indicates that RCCI combustion led to an increase in thermal efficiency from 30.36% to 35.42%, and the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate dropped from 83.42 bar to 59.64 bar and 78.68 kJ to 60.92 kJ, respectively. There was a significant reduction in HC, CO, CO2, NO x and smoke emissions recorded as 58.76 ppm, 0.11%v, 1.61%v, 442 ppm and 6.64 N, respectively, compared to CBC.

Investigation of the intelligent anti-aging bitumen using microcapsule clean-product secreting waste cooking oil through polyacrylamide-gel in porous-shell structure

The aging of bitumen is an urgent problem in pavement engineering materials. The objective of this work was to fabricate an intelligent anti-aging bitumen using a clean microcapsule product that secretes waste cooking oil through polyacrylamide (PAM)-gel in a porous shell structure. The microcapsule had a composite shell with cross-linked hexamethoxymethylmelamine as a skeleton with a porous structure and gel PAM filled in pores as the channels of the liquid waste cooking oil as core material. Aged bitumen was mixed with various microcapsules, and their physical and chemical properties were investigated. The testing results indicated that shells had successfully microencapsulated the oily rejuvenator without defects and damages. FT-IR results showed that the HMMM had been cross-linked and PAM also deposited in shells. SEM morphology showed that PAM was removed from the shell material after alcohol elution, and the shell still kept the spherical shape with a porous structure. Penetration experiments have demonstrated that PAM in the porous structure of the shell material can serve as a secretion channel for core material. Microcapsules had perfect thermal stability and homogeneous dispersion in bitumen, and there was no interface separation phenomenon. The test results showed that the bitumen/microcapsules samples gradually became softer and increased viscosity based on the viscosity changes, softening point, and penetration parameters. The tensile test also proved that adding microcapsules reduced the tensile strength of aged bitumen and increased the tensile elongation with the extension of time, which was entirely attributed to the action of the secreted rejuvenator molecules. The complex shear modulus (G*) values of bitumen/microcapsules samples gradually decreased with anti-aging time increasing at the same temperature. The phase angle values (δ) show that its value gradually decreases after the anti-aging process, indicating that the elastic composition of bitumen increases.

Harnessing a thermo-active and alkaline lipase from novel strain of Brevibacillus borstelensis gp-1, for application in biodiesel synthesis

A novel thermo-active and alkaliphilic strain of Gp-1, isolated from hot water springs of Ganeshpuri, Maharashtra, India, identified as Brevibacillus borstelensis based on 16SrDNA characterization, with accession no. MT292327, at NCBI database. Statistical optimization of lipase production was done using Plackett-Burman algorithm and response surface methodology. Fermentative production of Gp-1 lipase was followed by partial purification, with 24.10 fold purification. Gp-1 lipase has molecular mass of 31 kDa, as determined by SDS-PAGE. Gp-1 lipase exhibited maximal specific activity at pH 10 and 55 °C, with stability up to 70 °C. Kinetic parameters analysis revealed Gp-1 lipase has Km and Vmax values of 1.544 mM and 31.25 μM/mg. min, and specificity constant of 281.13 sec-1, with pNP caprylate as the base suited substrate. Gp-1 lipase was found to be retain more than 90% activity in presence of various organic solvents, and various commercial detergent formulations. The Gp-1 lipase was also tested for transesterification reactions, which revealed successful transesterification of coconut oil, olive oil and waste cooking oil, and conversion in esters. Hence, Gp-1 lipase stands out as a prospective candidate in biodiesel synthesis, a green energy alternative.

Extraction and characterization of biodiesel from waste cooking oil: An investigative approach based on the number of times used

Extraction and characterization of biodiesel from waste cooking oil: An investigative approach based on the number of times used

Biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil by microwave transesterification using inert aluminium foil (1%) as a heating promoter

The manufacture of biodiesel from waste cooking oil, using cost-effective and environmentally friendly processes, continues to attract attention. Microwave radiation (MW), which is easy to use and is not demanding on power supplies, can promote rapid chemical reactions; however, our understanding of the MW absorption that occurs with the oscillation of polar reactants is far from complete. To increase the interaction of MW with reactant, our approach used a MW reactor in conjunction with a transesterification process. A small amount of aluminium foil, which remains chemically inert in the reaction, was used as a MW heating promoter to accelerate transesterification without generating sparks in a process employing 700W MW irradiation at room temperature. The temperature of the MW reactor was measured by thermal image analysis, while thermogravimetric analysis (TA) and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy were used to characterize the components and boiling points and of soybean oil and its fatty acid components. The optimal size of the aluminium foil to use was determined by studying the transesterification of soybean oil with catalytic NaOH in a closed glass bottle. The results indicated that the reaction time to give a conversion of 82% was shortened by approximately 60% by adding 1 wt% aluminium foil (3 × 3 mm2).

Adhesion and Cohesion Performance of Polyurethane Made of Bio‐Polyol Derived from Modified Waste Cooking Oil for Exterior Grade Plywood

Adhesion and Cohesion Performance of Polyurethane Made of Bio‐Polyol Derived from Modified Waste Cooking Oil for Exterior Grade Plywood

Characterization of light components in rubber-oil mixtures reclaimed asphalt and their effect on the self-healing performance of asphalt

The aging process of asphalt pavement results in the loss of light components (saturates and aromatics) in asphalt, necessitating the use of regenerators for restoration. The study examined the variation pattern of light components in reclaimed asphalt and their effect on the self-healing performance of asphalt after regeneration. Two types of aged asphalt were analyzed using low-temperature co-pyrolysis products of waste tire crumb rubber (WTCR) and waste cooking oil (WCO). The reclaimed asphalt was fractionated into light components using the SARA (saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes) method. The regenerator containing the highest concentration of light components was identified through the Soxhlet extraction test. The compound compositions and functional groups of the light components in reclaimed asphalt were characterized using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Moreover, the self-healing performance of the reclaimed asphalt was evaluated using a dynamic shear rheometer (DSR). The results indicate that the 260-1-WROM regenerator produced an optimal content of light components under pyrolysis conditions at 260 °C for 1 h. Incorporating the 260-1-WROM regenerator in RTFO resulted in an increase in hopanoids, oxygenates, heterocyclics, and aromas. Similarly, the PAV regeneration process exhibited elevated levels of paraffins, hopanoids, oxygenates, alkanes, heterocyclics, and aromatic compounds. However, the presence of 260-1-WROM failed to increase the contents of steroids. Both types of reclaimed asphalts exhibited superior self-healing capabilities compared to 70#A, RTFO, and PAV. This suggests that 260-1-WROM effectively restored the light components in the aged asphalt, thereby optimizing the flowability of the reclaimed asphalt and enhancing its self-healing properties. Given the above findings, the recommended dosage for 260-1-WROM is 8 % for RTFO and 10 % for PAV.