Conversion Of Lignocellulose Research Articles

Designer cellulosomes – catalytic nanomachines with significant potential in biotechnology and circular economy

Cellulosomes are multienzyme complexes originally found on the surface of certain anaerobic celluloytic bacteria and fungi that are specialized in the degradation of plant cell walls. Recently, the efficiency in lignocellulose conversion and architectural features of these intricate complexes inspired the construction of artificial chimeric complexes for targeted substrate degradation. The simultaneous advancements in synthetic biology, protein engineering, and the pursuit of greater sustainability across various industries have highlighted the immense potential of these artificially designed enzymatic complexes for diverse applications. Notably, they hold significant promise for industries specializing in valorization of plant biomass waste and the production of bio-based renewable energy. The article discusses the main architectural features, design and construction steps as well as various biotechnological applications of these intriguing nanomachines.

Atmospheric one-pot fractionation and catalytic conversion of lignocellulose in multifunctional deep eutectic solvent system.

This study developed a "one-pot" three-stage process using a "multifunctional" deep eutectic solvent (DES) containing choline chloride (ChCl), ethylene glycol (EG), and protonic acids for the production of phenolic monomers, furfural, and glucose. In the first stage, the DES effectively dissolved over 70% of lignin and 78% of hemicellulose while preserving aryl ether bonds in lignin due to the grafting of EG onto the aryl ether bonds. Concurrently, the retention of a near-quantitative amount of cellulose led to a glucose yield of >80% after enzymatic saccharification. In the next stage, the DES enabled the catalytic depolymerization of lignin using a Ru/C catalyst at mild temperatures and atmospheric pressure, eliminating the need for an external hydrogen source and yielding G/S-propyl and G/S-propenyl monomers at 13.8%. Additionally, the ratio of ChCl to EG in the DES could regulate the composition and selectivity of the phenolic monomers. Following this, the hemicellulose sugars dissolved in the DES underwent catalytic hydrolysis in a DES/water system, achieving a furfural yield of 36.4% under optimized conditions. The results of this study offer important insights into the valorization of lignocellulose in "one-pot" under mild conditions, thereby advancing the field of biorefining.

Full conversion of lignocellulose using polyoxometalate catalysts with redox sites and antagonistic acidity/basicity

The full utilization of lignocellulose involves two distinct catalytic routes: i) oxidative depolymerization of lignin and ii) acid/alkaline hydrolysis of hemicellulose and cellulose. To improve efficiency and reduce costs, constructing a single-cluster catalyst represents a desirable yet challenging strategy. Herein, triple-functional molecular polyoxometalates (POMs), NLLnH6-nV2Mo18O62 (n = 1–6) were fabricated using N-lauroyl-l-lysine (NLL) and H6V2Mo18O62 as precursors. Besides its amphiphilicity to form nano-micelles with polyanion uniformly dispersed outside and NLL inside, NLL also provided basic sites to H+/redox POMs to compensate the loss of acidity and enabled spatial separation of antagonistic acid/base sites within a single POM molecule. Density Functional Theory, Molecular Dynamics simulations and experiments were employed to analyze these processes. The adsorption of –OH in 2-phenoxy-1-phenylethanol (pp-ol) was achieved by interacting with polyanion and extra with NH and C = O groups in NLL. These synergistic effects resulted in concentrating and confining pp-ol and reactive oxygen species around polyanion, which turnover frequency increased by 0.066 h−1 compared to homogeneous H6V2Mo18O62. Full conversion of various soft and hard lignocellulose was achieved using NLLH5V2Mo18O62 catalyst under gradually increasing temperature. During the conversion process, the lignin was oxidized mainly through β-O-4 bond cleavage without addition of NaOH, and the degradations of hemicellulose and cellulose were realized through acidic hydrolysis. The characteristics of this triple POMs allowed it to show higher activity than homogeneous H6V2Mo18O62 and previous BetH5V2Mo18O62 (Bet, i.e. betaine), which provided an alternative to developing new surfactant-type POMs in biomass conversion. The temperature-controlled properties in NLLH5V2Mo18O62 allowed easy separation and regeneration.

DES-driven sustainable dual valorization of lignocellulose into carbon dots and porous biochar for effective wastewater remediation

Deep eutectic solvents (DES) are renowned for their effectiveness in deconstructing lignocellulose and extracting lignin, yet the challenges lie in lignin condensation and the disposal of the DES remnants after pretreatment. To overcome these issues, this work proposed a holistic strategy utilizing deep eutectic solvent (DES)-driven lignocellulose deconstruction to upgrade lignocellulose into nitrogen-doped carbon dots (CDs) and iron-decorated porous carbons, serving as photocatalysts and adsorbents, respectively. These nitrogen-doped CDs via the choline chloride/FeCl3 DES pretreatment exhibited abundant nitrogen/oxygen functional groups, enhancing photocatalytic activities and facilitating effective charge separation and transfer. The photocatalytic efficiency of the CDs on dyes reached 97 % under acidic conditions primarily, and free radical quenching experiments indicated that singlet oxygen was the dominant oxidant species. Moreover, the adsorption capabilities of Fe-decorated porous carbons for Congo red reached 2432.3 mg·g−1, surpassing most existing carbon materials. The adsorption mechanism was due to a synergistic effect including physical adsorption, coordination, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic, and π-π interactions. This study proposed a synergetic conversion of DES and lignocellulose into functional carbon materials for wastewater remediation, which inspired the development of a green and cost-effective biorefinery.

Promoted lignocellulose fractionation and improved enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stalks through cationic surfactant combined with deep eutectic solvent pretreatment

The efficient conversion of lignocellulose relies on the implementation of an effective pretreatment strategy. Cationic surfactants combined with deep eutectic solvent ([Betaine][LA] was employed as a novel pretreatment strategy for treating corn stalks. Valuable insights were provided on the impact of the surfactant hydrophobic segment length on pretreatment efficacy. The specific pretreatment conditions were optimized by single factor and orthogonal experiment. Octadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (OTAB, 1.5 wt%) with the longest hydrophobic part combined with [Betaine][LA] (Betaine-to-LA molar ratio 1:4) achieved the best pretreatment effect (delignification 92.8 %, xylan elimination 91.1 %) when severity factor reached 4.26, meanwhile, 1.7 g/L xylo-oligosaccharides and 4.4 g/L furfural were detected in pretreatment liquid due to the hydrolysis of hemicellulose in corn stalks with acidic deep eutectic solvent [Betaine][LA]. The relative saccharification activity reached 2.7 times of raw material, while the lignin surface area significantly decreased, leading to enhanced cellulose accessibility. Additionally, molecular perspective provided by molecular dynamics showed the elimination of lignin and xylan was facilitated by strong interaction of hydrogen-bond and van der Waals force between lignin and hemicellulose with [Betaine][LA] + OTAB. Overall, the effectiveness and potential of cationic surfactant combined deep eutectic solvent pretreatment strategy for lignocellulose pretreatment was revealed.

Benzenoid Aromatics from Renewable Resources.

In this Review, all known chemical methods for the conversion of renewable resources into benzenoid aromatics are summarized. The raw materials that were taken into consideration are CO2; lignocellulose and its constituents cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin; carbohydrates, mostly glucose, fructose, and xylose; chitin; fats and oils; terpenes; and materials that are easily obtained via fermentation, such as biogas, bioethanol, acetone, and many more. There are roughly two directions. One much used method is catalytic fast pyrolysis carried out at high temperatures (between 300 and 700 °C depending on the raw material), which leads to the formation of biochar; gases, such as CO, CO2, H2, and CH4; and an oil which is a mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly aromatics. The carbon selectivities of this method can be reasonably high when defined small molecules such as methanol or hexane are used but are rather low when highly oxygenated compounds such as lignocellulose are used. The other direction is largely based on the multistep conversion of platform chemicals obtained from lignocellulose, cellulose, or sugars and a limited number of fats and terpenes. Much research has focused on furan compounds such as furfural, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, and 5-chloromethylfurfural. The conversion of lignocellulose to xylene via 5-chloromethylfurfural and dimethylfuran has led to the construction of two large-scale plants, one of which has been operational since 2023.

Direct Conversion of Minimally Pretreated Corncob by Enzyme-Intensified Microbial Consortia

The presence of diverse carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) is crucial for the direct bioconversion of lignocellulose. In this study, various anaerobic microbial consortia were employed for the degradation of 10 g/L of minimally pretreated corncob. The involvement of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and a CAZyme-rich bacterium (Bacteroides cellulosilyticus or Paenibacillus lautus) significantly enhanced the lactic acid production by Ruminiclostridium cellulolyticum from 0.74 to 2.67 g/L (p < 0.01), with a polysaccharide conversion of 67.6%. The supplement of a commercial cellulase cocktail, CTec 2, into the microbial consortia continuously promoted the lactic acid production to up to 3.35 g/L, with a polysaccharide conversion of 80.6%. Enzymatic assays, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the substantial functions of these CAZyme-rich consortia in partially increasing enzyme activities, altering the surface structure of biomass, and facilitating substrate decomposition. These results suggested that CAZyme-intensified consortia could significantly improve the levels of bioconversion of lignocellulose. Our work might shed new light on the construction of intensified microbial consortia for direct conversion of lignocellulose.

Efficient conversion of corn stover to glucose using alkaline DBU synergized glycerol-based deep eutectic solvent under mild conditions

Efficient pretreatment is crucial for the high-value and effective conversion of lignocellulose. However, the current glycerol-based deep eutectic solvent (DES-Gly) pretreatment method requires high reaction temperatures, considerable solvent usage, and yields low conversion efficiency. In this study, we investigated the pretreatment of corn stover with 1,8-diazobicyclic [5.4.0] undeca-7-ene (DBU) synergized with DES-Gly, which significantly enhances the glucose yield from corn stover. The strong synergistic effect of DBU and DES-Gly effectively removes lignin and substantially increases glucose yield. Under optimal conditions, 95.27 % glucose conversion could be achieved, even with the addition of only 2 FPU/mL of cellulase. The physicochemical properties of the DES-Gly solution and pretreated corn stover were analyzed using FTIR, XRD, SEM, TGA, and 1 H NMR characterization techniques. In addition, DES-Gly and DBU synergy mechanisms are further explored. Our work provides a mild, efficient and low-cost DES-Gly-based pretreatment method, introducing a new way for the catalytic conversion of lignocellulose to sugar production.

In situ immobilization multi-enzyme biocatalytic system on covalent organic frameworks for efficient conversion of lignocellulose to glucose

Efficient enzyme immobilization is crucial for addressing the resource utilization challenges associated with lignocellulose. However, the widespread application of immobilized enzyme systems faces significant obstacles, including low enzyme activity and the limited pore structure of existing carriers. To overcome these challenges, a novel multi-enzyme biocatalytic system (multi-enzymes@COF) was developed for the in situ immobilization of cellulose and β-glucosidase on covalent organic frameworks (COFs). Results showed that multi-enzyme@COF exhibits good crystallinity and a mesoporous structure, leading to an increased enzyme loading rate of 0.6 g/g and enhanced cellulose conversion efficiency of up to 78.7 %. Additionally, multi-enzymes@COF demonstrated remarkable stability a broader pH range (4−7) and temperature range (50–70 ℃), with the actively above 70 %. Moreover, the enzymes maintained approximately 74.7 % of their activity even after seven cycles. This research presents an innovative strategy for the effective utilization of lignocellulose through enzymatic processes, promoting sustainable and efficient resource utilization.

Advancements in biomass valorization in integrated biorefinery systems

AbstractThe utilization of lignocellulosic biomass for the generation of diverse value‐added biochemicals and biofuels is crucial in modern biorefineries and bioenergy initiatives, contributing significantly to the pursuit of a climate‐neutral future. Agricultural, forest and industrial sources of lignocellulosic biomass serve as exceptionally renewable precursors in biorefinery processes. In spite of its abundance, the effective breakdown of biomass poses a significant challenge. Thus, it is essential to integrate various unit processes, including biochemical, thermochemical, physical, enzymatic and catalytic conversion, to generate a wide array of bio‐based products. Intensive integration of these processes not only enhances yield and reduces reaction time but also proves to be economically efficient. Furthermore, these process integration approaches may contribute to the establishment of a circular bioeconomy through biorefineries, effectively reducing both bioresource waste and greenhouse gas emissions. This review offers fundamental insights into biomass and its chemistry, with a detailed discussion on lignocellulosic conversion systems. It explores how integrating conversion processes can facilitate the transition toward a circular economy. Additionally, it summarizes the challenges and prospects associated with advancing integrated biorefineries and circular economy principles to achieve complete biomass valorization.

Bioethanol derived from rice straw agricultural waste as alternative energy towards a pollution-free era

Abstract Rice production occupies the first position as raw material for bioethanol production, with a total output throughout Indonesia of 56.63 million tons in 2023 (BPS, 2023). The purpose of this innovation is to create bioethanol derived from new raw materials, namely rice straw, by applying the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) method for the conversion of lignocellulose into alcohol, which will produce bioethanol with a purity level of about 99% with a more efficient process. This method goes through several processes, including breaking the size of the rice straw to 0.1 mm and mixing it with several bacteria for fermentation and hydrolysis. The saccharification process is also carried out until the distillation process to make high levels of bioethanol. Bioethanol from the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) method is tested using an Octane Number Analyzer to determine the octane number content. The test included mixing bioethanol with Pertamax 92 to prove the effect of adding bioethanol to Pertamax, and the result was 93.1. Therefore, the innovation of making bioethanol from rice straw with the SSF method is expected to be a solution for Indonesia towards a pollution-free era.

A fragment of the β-glucosidase gene from the rumen fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum J11 encodes a recombinant protein that exhibits activities in β-glucosidase and β-glucanase

Lignocellulose, the most abundant organic waste on Earth, is of economic value because it can be converted into biofuels like ethanol by enzymes such as β-glucosidase. This study involved cloning a β-glucosidase gene named JBG from the rumen fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum J11. When expressed recombinantly in Escherichia coli, the rJBG enzyme exhibited significant activity, hydrolyzing 4-nitrophenyl-β-d-glucopyranoside and cellobiose to release glucose. Surprisingly, the rJBG enzyme also showed hydrolytic activity against β-glucan, breaking it down into glucose, indicating that the rJBG enzyme possesses both β-glucosidase and β-glucanase activities, a characteristic rarely found in β-glucosidases. When the JBG gene was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the transformants were inoculated into a medium containing β-glucan as the sole carbon source, the ethanol concentration in the culture medium increased from 0.17 g/L on the first day to 0.77 g/L on the third day, reaching 1.3 g/L on the fifth day, whereas no ethanol was detected in the yeast transformants containing the recombinant plasmid pYES-Sur under the same conditions. These results demonstrate that yeast transformants carrying the JBG gene can directly saccharify β-glucan and ferment it to produce ethanol. This gene, with its dual β-glucosidase and β-glucanase activities, simplifies and reduces the cost of the typical process of converting lignocellulose into bioethanol using enzymes and yeast.

Simple building blocks from forestry residues via convergent catalytic pathways

Funneling complex lignocellulose into simple and valuable building blocks has garnered significant interest in the field of biorefinery as a competitor to the petrochemical industry. Reductive Catalytic Fractionation (RCF) of lignocellulose, an innovative biorefinery technology, provides a promising strategy for complete valorization of lignocellulose into various valuable chemicals. In this study, integrated processes utilizing RCF strategies were developed to achieve complete conversion of lignocellulose into various simple and valuable platform chemicals. The core of this system is the flexible use of commercial Ni catalysts including Raney Ni and Ni/SiO2-Al2O3 which brings great benefits for future upscale and industrial applications. Surprisingly, both monomers derived from lignin and high molecular weight fractions could be converted to 4-ethylcyclohexanol while carbohydrate pulp was converted to furfural and 5-methoxymethylfurfural (MMF) in one-pot. MMF could be further upgraded to 2,5-Furandicarboxylicacid (FDCA) via catalytic oxidation by Ru/C catalysts. This work could inspire the development of more sustainable and economically viable biorefinery processes.

Carbon fixation mechanism of fungal community bypass strategy in rice straw composting combined with functional microbes: inhibition from cellobiose to glucose pathway

Composting offers an eco-friendly approach, converting organic solid waste into valuable soil enhancer products. Three experimental treatments were designed to explore the microbial mechanisms influencing lignocellulose loss in rice straw composting: CK (the control), B4 (inoculated with Bacillus subtilis), and Z1 (inoculated with Aspergillus fumigatus). The results showed significant increases in carboxymethyl cellulase, cellobiohydrolase, laccase, and xylanase activities during B4 and Z1composting. However, lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase were not significantly affected, and β-glucosidase was inhibited. Additionally, microbial inoculation stimulated lignin loss, with B4 and Z1 composting increasing degradation by 14.42% and 16.29%, respectively, compared to the CK. Simultaneously, humic substance content increased as microbial inoculation inhibited β-glucosidase, causing cellobiose to accumulate and divert into a pathway that forms humic substances. The random forest model showed that Symmetrospora and Phaeosphaeria significantly boosted lignocellulose loss in B4 and Z1 composting by promoting fungi functional aggregation, thus accelerating the degradation and transformation process. This study explored the microbial mechanism of lignocellulose loss and provided new insights into lignocellulose conversion and carbon fixation.

Parascedosporium putredinis NO1 tailors its secretome for different lignocellulosic substrates.

Parascedosporium putredinis NO1 is a plant biomass-degrading ascomycete with a propensity to target the most recalcitrant components of lignocellulose. Here we applied proteomics and activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) to investigate the ability of P. putredinis NO1 to tailor its secretome for growth on different lignocellulosic substrates. Proteomic analysis of soluble and insoluble culture fractions following the growth of P. putredinis NO1 on six lignocellulosic substrates highlights the adaptability of the response of the P. putredinis NO1 secretome to different substrates. Differences in protein abundance profiles were maintained and observed across substrates after bioinformatic filtering of the data to remove intracellular protein contamination to identify the components of the secretome more accurately. These differences across substrates extended to carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) at both class and family levels. Investigation of abundant activities in the secretomes for each substrate revealed similar variation but also a high abundance of "unknown" proteins in all conditions investigated. Fluorescence-based and chemical proteomic ABPP of secreted cellulases, xylanases, and β-glucosidases applied to secretomes from multiple growth substrates for the first time confirmed highly adaptive time- and substrate-dependent glycoside hydrolase production by this fungus. P. putredinis NO1 is a promising new candidate for the identification of enzymes suited to the degradation of recalcitrant lignocellulosic feedstocks. The investigation of proteomes from the biomass bound and culture supernatant fractions provides a more complete picture of a fungal lignocellulose-degrading response. An in-depth understanding of this varied response will enhance efforts toward the development of tailored enzyme systems for use in biorefining.IMPORTANCEThe ability of the lignocellulose-degrading fungus Parascedosporium putredinis NO1 to tailor its secreted enzymes to different sources of plant biomass was revealed here. Through a combination of proteomic, bioinformatic, and fluorescent labeling techniques, remarkable variation was demonstrated in the secreted enzyme response for this ascomycete when grown on multiple lignocellulosic substrates. The maintenance of this variation over time when exploring hydrolytic polysaccharide-active enzymes through fluorescent labeling, suggests that this variation results from an actively tailored secretome response based on substrate. Understanding the tailored secretomes of wood-degrading fungi, especially from underexplored and poorly represented families, will be important for the development of effective substrate-tailored treatments for the conversion and valorization of lignocellulose.

Design and synthesis of SO3H-based ionic liquids for direct catalytic conversion of straw to levulinic acid

The utilization of ionic liquids (ILs) in the conversion of lignocellulose to levulinic acid (LA) is a significant pathway in the field of bio-refinery. In this study, a series of sulfonic-based ILs with elongated alkyl chains were synthesized using density functional theory. These ILs were then utilized for the conversion of straw into LA in a single reaction vessel. The yield of LA was compared between a single solvent (water) and a biphasic system comprising water and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK). Among the investigated ILs, [C3SO3HEim]Cl exhibited a higher yield of LA, reaching up to 11.3 wt% in the aqueous phase and 17.8 wt% in the MIBK-water biphasic system. Furthermore, [C3SO3HEim]Cl displayed a high catalytic efficiency (90.4%) and a yield of LA (16.3 wt%) after 5 cycles. These findings suggest that the elongation of alkyl side chains in ILs enhances the solubility of cellulose and increases the yield of LA. The MIBK-water biphasic system promotes the rehydration of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and reduces the residence time of LA in the aqueous phase, thereby optimizing its yield. This innovative approach involving ILs and the MIBK-water biphasic system presents a novel perspective for the production of LA from biomass.

Cis-trans adsorption configuration influenced high-efficient hydrogenation of furfural over zeolite-encapsulated PtCu bimetallic catalyst

Bimetallic catalysts are promising materials for high-efficient conversion of lignocellulose to value-added chemicals, but synthetic methods with reasonable generality are still lacking. Herein, we report a novel method for synthesizing bimetallic catalyst PtCu@S-1(S-1, silicalite‑1) via zeolite encapsulation with the aid of protecting chelating ligands. PtCu@S-1 displays remarkable activity for the hydrogenation of furfural (FUR) to furfuryl alcohol (FOL), and its apparent turnover frequency (TOF) values reach up to 735 mmolFUR·mmolPt−1·h−1 and 88 mmolFUR·mmolCu−1·h−1, which are ∼ 16 and ∼ 4 times higher than that of Pt@S-1 and Cu@S-1. Interestingly, we for the first time find that OO-trans FUR is a preferable adsorption configuration over OO-cis FUR on PtCu@S-1 due to the Pt sites coordinating with the carbon atom on the furan ring. More importantly, the adsorption ability of OO-trans FUR is stronger than that of OO-cis FUR, which increases the concentration of adsorbed species on PtCu@S-1 and accelerates the hydrogenation of FUR.

Tolerance of hyperosmolar Candida krusei

The utilization of industrial microorganisms for the conversion of lignocellulose into high value-added chemicals is an essential pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality and promoting sustainable bioeconomy. However, the pretreated lignocellulase hydrolysate often contains various sugars, salts, phenols/aldehydes and other substances, which requires microorganisms to possess strong tolerance for direct fermentation. This study aims to investigate the tolerance of Candida krusei to substrate, salt, and high temperature shock, in order to validate its potential for utilizing the enzymatic hydrolysate of Pennisetum giganteum in seawater for fermentation. The experimental results showed that the adaptively domesticated C. krusei exhibited tolerance to glucose at a concentration of 200 g/L and became a hypertonic strain. When seawater was used instead of freshwater without sterilization, the yield of glycerol in fermentation was 109% higher than that in freshwater with sterilization. Moreover, the combined thermal shock at 32 hours of fermentation and addition of 10 Na2SO3 at 48 hours resulted in a yield of glycerol to glucose 0.37 g/g, which was 225% higher than the control group. By fermenting the enzymatic hydrolysate of P. giganteum pretreated in seawater, the total conversion rate of glucose into glycerol and ethanol reached 0.45 g/g. This study indicates that hypertonic C. krusei exhibits remarkable adaptability to substrate, salt, and temperature. It not only can directly utilize complex lignocellulosic hydrolysates, but also exhibits strong tolerance to them. Therefore, it provides a potential candidate strain for the production of bio-based chemicals using lignocellulosic processes.

Pure lignin induces overexpression of cytochrome P450 (CYP) encoding genes and brings insights into the lignocellulose depolymerization by Trametes villosa

Trametes villosa is a remarkable white-rot fungus (WRF) with the potential to be applied in lignocellulose conversion to obtain chemical compounds and biofuels. Lignocellulose breakdown by WRF is carried out through the secretion of oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes. Despite the existing knowledge about this process, the complete molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of this metabolic system have not yet been elucidated. Therefore, in order to understand the genes and metabolic pathways regulated during lignocellulose degradation, the strain T. villosa CCMB561 was cultured in media with different carbon sources (lignin, sugarcane bagasse, and malt extract). Subsequently, biochemical assays and differential gene expression analysis by qPCR and high-throughput RNA sequencing were carried out. Our results revealed the ability of T. villosa CCMB561 to grow on lignin (AL medium) as the unique carbon source. An overexpression of Cytochrome P450 was detected in this medium, which may be associated with the lignin O-demethylation pathway. Clusters of up-regulated CAZymes-encoding genes were identified in lignin and sugarcane bagasse, revealing that T. villosa CCMB561 acts simultaneously in the depolymerization of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. Furthermore, genes encoding nitroreductases and homogentisate-1,2-dioxygenase that act in the degradation of organic pollutants were up-regulated in the lignin medium. Altogether, these findings provide new insights into the mechanisms of lignocellulose degradation by T. villosa and confirm the ability of this fungal species to be applied in biorefineries and in the bioremediation of organic pollutants.

Prussian blue analogs photocatalyst promote the evolution of value‐added platform compounds via CoCNZn covalent bonds

AbstractValue‐added conversion of lignocellulose is a sustainable approach. Photo‐refining biomass is in line with current environmental protection strategies. However, photo‐reforming biomass suffers from poor catalyst stability and low conversion efficiency. Here, we designed fructose as a lignocellulosic model. The heterogeneous structure of Prussian blue coating was constructed with a special covalent bond structure of CoCNZn. This structure has a catalytic conversion mechanism that can accelerate electron transfer. Fructose was simultaneously converted to value‐added platform compounds (5‐HMF and formic acid) and gaseous fuels (CO, CH4) with a conversion rate of up to 92.5%, which is more than 1.7 times than that of catalysts without adding Prussian blue. Hydrogen transfer and carbon transfer on the carbon atoms of fructose facilitates the production and accelerates the spillover of CO from formic acid. This work provides new ideas for the development of Prussian blue catalysts and the conversion of pentose.image