Conversion Experience Research Articles

The Zoom solution: Promoting effective cross-ideological communication online

The rise of ideological polarization in the U.S. over the past few decades has come with an increase in hostility on both sides of the political aisle. Although communication and compromise are hallmarks of a functioning society, research has shown that people overestimate the negative affect they will experience when viewing oppositional media, and it is likely that negative forecasts lead many to avoid cross-ideological communication (CIC) altogether. Additionally, a growing ideological geographic divide and online extremism fueled by social media audiences make engaging in CIC more difficult than ever. Here, we demonstrate that online video-chat platforms (i.e., Zoom) can be used to promote effective CIC among ideologically polarized individuals, as well as to better study CIC in a controlled setting. Participants (n = 122) had a face-to-face CIC over Zoom, either privately or publicly with a silent ingroup audience present. Participant forecasts about the interaction were largely inaccurate, with the actual conversation experience found to be more positive than anticipated. Additionally, the presence of an ingroup audience was associated with increased conflict. In both conditions, participants showed preliminary signs of attitude moderation, felt more favorable toward the outgroup, and felt more informed about the issue after the CIC. These results suggest that face-to-face CIC’s are generally positive and beneficial for polarized individuals, and that greater effects may be achieved through private conversations, as opposed to more public social media-like interactions. Future researchers studying ideological conflict may find success using similar Zoom paradigms to bring together ideologically diverse individuals in controlled lab settings.

Attempts to encourage diplomacy in online interactions: Three informative failures

Online discussions about controversial topics seem more prone to misunderstanding and even polarization than similar discussions held face-to-face. Recent research uncovered an important reason why: certain behaviors that are used to communicate diplomacy and tact in face-to-face discussions – specifically, responsiveness and ambiguity – are more difficult to enact online. To improve online interaction experiences and understand the underlying mechanisms better, we ran three exploratory studies in which we tried to manipulate these diplomatic behaviors in online and face-to-face conversations.Study 1 and 2 aimed to increase ambiguity and responsiveness in online environments to test whether it would result in increased experiences of solidarity. To this end, Study 1 (N = 68, repeated measures) compared a regular chat function with a chat function in which interaction partners saw each other's typing in real time. In Study 2 (N = 74, repeated measures), we introduced a keyboard that allowed participants to make interjecting sounds alongside text-based communication. In contrast, Study 3 (N = 105, repeated measures) aimed to reduce responsiveness and ambiguity in face-to-face discussion to test whether this would hamper participants' ability to navigate disagreements while maintaining solidarity. We asked participants about their conversational experiences both quantitatively and qualitatively in all studies.We did not find the expected effects in any of the studies. The qualitative analyses of participants' behavior and commentary gave some insights into the reasons. Participants compensated for and/or distanced themselves from the manipulations. These behavioral adaptations all seemed to be socially motivated. We conclude by offering recommendations for research into online polarization.

혁신초등학교 학부모가 경험한 의사소통 특성 연구

Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore the characteristics of communication experienced by parents in order to find the possibility of rational communication in innovation elementary schools. Methods This study used a case study method and analyzed how parents of Deulkkot Elementary School, an innovation plus school, experienced communication with teachers. Seven parents were interviewed in-depth with semi-structured questionnaires on experience in innovative schools, communication experience with homeroom teachers, communication experience in school management, general conversation, and school participation consciousness. The collected data were derived from three topics and six categories by applying sequential and cyclical method of Merriam(2009). Results First, Deulkkot Elementary School strived for reasonable communication between teachers and parents through online and offline information opening and sharing, participation in equal relationships, and bottom-up communication. Second, the teacher tried to communicate with parents with truthfulness through an unauthorized attitude, a mind of consideration and respect, and a reasonable explanation. Third, parents actively supported schools and teachers through expectations for schools, understanding of schools, and mutual exchange activities between parents. The limitations revealed in rational communication were the inconvenience and disappointment that parents felt from some teachers, and internal confrontation and dissatisfaction in parent interaction. Conclusions In order to realize a democratic autonomous community through rational communication in innovative schools, efforts such as the appropriate size of schools that can communicate, sincere attitudes of teacher, parents' communication skills through parent training, and participation of graduated parents in schools are necessary.

혁신초등학교 학부모가 경험한 의사소통 특성 연구

Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore the characteristics of communication experienced by parents in order to find the possibility of rational communication in innovation elementary schools. Methods This study used a case study method and analyzed how parents of Deulkkot Elementary School, an innovation plus school, experienced communication with teachers. Seven parents were interviewed in-depth with semi-structured questionnaires on experience in innovative schools, communication experience with homeroom teachers, communication experience in school management, general conversation, and school participation consciousness. The collected data were derived from three topics and six categories by applying sequential and cyclical method of Merriam(2009). Results First, Deulkkot Elementary School strived for reasonable communication between teachers and parents through online and offline information opening and sharing, participation in equal relationships, and bottom-up communication. Second, the teacher tried to communicate with parents with truthfulness through an unauthorized attitude, a mind of consideration and respect, and a reasonable explanation. Third, parents actively supported schools and teachers through expectations for schools, understanding of schools, and mutual exchange activities between parents. The limitations revealed in rational communication were the inconvenience and disappointment that parents felt from some teachers, and internal confrontation and dissatisfaction in parent interaction. Conclusions In order to realize a democratic autonomous community through rational communication in innovative schools, efforts such as the appropriate size of schools that can communicate, sincere attitudes of teacher, parents' communication skills through parent training, and participation of graduated parents in schools are necessary.

Impact of mobile technology in library services

Now Days Mobile technologies and its application are playing an increasingly vital role in phone age people. Devices such as like smart phones, tablets, and e-book readers connect users to the world immediately, Advancements in networking technologies made it possible for mobile devices and application to be used in the field of education and Library services. It will be very easy access to information via mobile etc. It will also be effective and economic. Such technologies can have a great impact on learning by providing a rich, collaborative and conversational experience for Library. Therefore, this Mobile technology has become a necessary and important in Library Services. So this article seeks to explain the meaning of mobile technology and how this type technology is used for library services as well as explicate the advantages and disadvantage this technology.

COVID-19로 인해 전환된 화상상담의 내담자 경험에 관한 합의적 질적연구

Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore the clients’ experience of a video conferencing counseling introduced in accordance with the prolonged COVID-19 outbreak. To identify clients’ experience of a video conferencing counseling and provide basic data for the effective approach of video conferencing counseling in the future. Methods For this purpose, individual interviews were conducted from February 2022 to March 2022 for 7 clients who switched from face-to-face counseling to video conferencing counseling due to COVID-19, and 7 pieces of data were collected. Collected data was analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research(CQR). Results As a result of the analysis, a total of 4 areas and 12 categories were derived. The four areas derived are ‘experience of transition to video conferencing counseling’, ‘digital environment of video conferencing counseling’, ‘video conferencing counseling space environment’, and ‘suggestions for activating video conferencing counseling in the future’. In the ‘experience of transition to video conferencing counseling’, there are three categories of ‘attitude before the transition to video conferencing counseling’, ‘good points compared to face-to-face counseling’, and ‘disadvantages compared to face-to-face counseling’. In the four categories of ‘comfort due to unfamiliar digital environment’, ‘inconvenience due to unstable network environment’, ‘consultation due to unfamiliar digital environment’, ‘visual counseling space environment’ In the two categories of ‘good points’ and ‘disadvantages of counseling in a private space’, ‘suggestions for activating video conferencing counseling in the future’ Three categories of ‘consultation progress’ were derived. Conclusions Based on the study results, the implications and limitations of counseling were presented. This study compared the experiences of face-to-face and video conferencing counseling through the client's video conferencing counseling conversion experience, and provided implications for an effective approach to video conferencing counseling and understanding the client.

Alignment in second language speakers’ perceptions of interaction and its relationship to perceived communicative success

Conversation is a co-constructed social activity, and interlocutors, including second language (L2) speakers, frequently align in their linguistic and nonlinguistic behaviors to create shared understanding. Given that L2 speakers make assumptions about their interlocutors, this exploratory study examines whether their perceptions about linguistic, socio-affective, and behavioral dimensions of interaction align. It also explores whether such alignment is related to their agreement about the success of the conversation. Eighty-four pairs of L2 English university students completed a 10-min academic discussion task, subsequently rating each other's comprehensibility, fluency, anxiety, motivation, and collaboration. At the end of a 30-min session, they also assessed the communicative success of their conversational experience. Speakers were generally aligned in their evaluations of each other and in their perception of communicative success, with alignment operationalized as the difference between the partners' scores. Although alignment in all dimensions of interaction was associated with perceived communicative success, collaboration had the strongest relationship (0.40 or 16% shared variance). The findings provide preliminary evidence that L2 speakers' alignment in perceived dimensions of interaction, particularly collaboration, is associated with their perceived communicative success.

An event-contingent method to track disfluency effects on the relationship and the self.

BackgroundTheoretically, reductions of self‐esteem among people who stutter (PWS) are often explained by individual negative cognitions or emotions of the PWS or their conversation partners. We propose that the flow of a conversation can be seen as a representation of the relationship between speakers, and that by disrupting this flow, a stutter may directly threaten this relationship, and in turn affect self‐esteem. Methodologically, we present a new, event‐contingent, method that assesses fluctuations in self‐esteem over time and thereby allows one to assess the predictive value of specific conversational experiences.AimsTo have both a theoretical and a methodological contribution on conversational disfluency.Methods & ProceduresOur focus is not on stable individual factors, but we expect that fluctuations within the flow of everyday conversations predict changes in self‐esteem. We studied these fluctuations with an experience sampling method which prompted participants to answer a brief survey after each of 10 conversations in a 2‐week period. Self‐identified PWS (n = 58) and people who do not stutter (PWNS; n = 53) reported on their individual negative cognitions and emotions and experienced relational quality and state self‐esteem in more than 1000 conversations. By assessing fluctuations in self‐esteem over time, this method allows one to assess the predictive value of specific conversational experiences.Outcomes & ResultsCorrelational evidence demonstrates that flow disruptions are associated with temporary reductions in self‐esteem. This association is mediated by increased individual negative cognitions and emotions, as well as threatened social relationships. This appeared to be true for both PWS and PWNS, although PWS experienced on average less conversational flow and lower state self‐esteem. On average, PWS did not experience lower relational quality than PWNS.Conclusions & ImplicationsAn event‐contingent recording method is a useful way to assess momentary fluctuations in self‐esteem. Findings are consistent with the notion that people monitor their relationship by attending to fluctuations in conversational flow; whereas a smooth conversational flow indicates a strong relationship, disruptions of flow (e.g., as caused by a stutter or other factors) signal a threat to the relationship.What this paper addsWhat is already known on the subject Even though adverse effects of stuttering on the experience of self‐esteem have been reported, the evidence for this relation is equivocal. Because the evidence is mixed, it becomes interesting to examine the processes that provide insight in how stuttering may affect self‐esteem. Theoretically, reductions of self‐esteem among PWS are often explained by individual negative cognitions or emotions of the PWS or their conversation partners. Methodologically, studies examine this relation by single self‐report measures, or by laboratory studies. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Our theoretical model shows that the flow of a conversation can be seen as a representation of the relationship between speakers, and that by disrupting this flow, a stutter directly threatens this relationship, and in turn, affects self‐esteem. Methodologically, we present a new, event‐contingent, method that assesses fluctuations in self‐esteem over time and thereby allows one to assess the predictive value of specific conversational experiences. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Going beyond the study of stable individual cognitions and emotions of PWS and listeners, our findings show that a close examination of between‐conversation fluctuations in flow can teach us about the day‐to‐day reality of people living with speech disorders, and the way they develop relationships and self‐esteem.

Beyond Interiority in Christian Conversion: Proximity to Jesus as Patron among Muslim-background “Isai” in Bangladesh

Abstract Though conversion studies have attempted to move beyond models that “privilege interior states and subjectivities” (Rambo and Farhadian 2014), this article argues, first, that such a step forward has proved difficult. Interiority persists within frequent divisions of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in Christian conversion or is only de-emphasized at the cost of marginalizing converts’ theological or spiritual convictions. Retaining an internal-external paradigm is especially problematic in non-western contexts, where converts may have quite differently-ordered configurations of self-understanding. Second, the article demonstrates the potential of suspending this duality, through an analysis of existing studies of Muslim-background “Isai” groups in Bangladesh. Isai conversion, involving a pivot from Muhammad to Jesus, is interpreted within a patron-client scheme in which intimacy is more fundamental than interiority, indicating that devotional “proximity” might be a way to refer to the transformative conversion experience without reverting to an interior-exterior dichotomy.

Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist in the Arena ed. by Char Miller and Clay S. Jenkinson

Reviewed by: Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist in the Arena ed. by Char Miller and Clay S. Jenkinson Julie Courtwright Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist in the Arena. Edited by Char Miller and Clay S. Jenkinson. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2020. vii + 264 pp. Illustrations, index. $24.95 paper. Theodore Roosevelt: Naturalist in the Arena, edited by Char Miller and Clay S. Jenkinson, is an anthology about Theodore Roosevelt (TR)'s enduring legacy as a conservationist and lover of nature. It is a familiar topic, but the writers attempt to add fresh perspectives by studying Roosevelt's "manifold encounters with the great outdoors" through an interdisciplinary lens (xiv). The result is an appealing and readable book that highlights both TR's familiar and less familiar connections with nature, as well as his quirky behavior and notable intellect. Some of the writers also explore Roosevelt's less laudable opinions, most notably his evolving attitudes toward race, and their connection to the president's "intellectual and affective response to the natural world" (xiv). The editors have divided the book into three sections. The first, "Field Notes," examines Roosevelt's lesser-known work as a "scientist and curator, observer and recorder" (xiv). Here, writers feature TR as a writer, bird-lover, and urban explorer. Melanie Choukas-Bradley's chapter about Roosevelt's love affair with Rock Creek Park in Washington, DC, is a fascinating window into his everyday relationship with nature, independent of his famous trips to the American West. For Great Plains enthusiasts, Thomas Cullen Bailey and Katherine Joslin include an analysis of Roosevelt's writing, including Hunting Trips of a Ranchman (1885) and its relationship to the president's personal grief and the Great Plains landscape. The second section, "Outside Influences," explores TR's relationship with notable individuals such as George Bird Grinnell, Gifford Pinchot, John Muir, and William T. Hornaday. Jenkinson's chapter, "The Cowboy, the Crusader, and the Salvation of the American Buffalo," is the most Great Plains-centric chapter. It describes Roosevelt and Hornaday's separate hunting trips to the Northern Plains, taken at a time when the number of bison in the region was negligible and declining fast. Hornaday, chief taxidermist at the National Museum of Natural History, collected bison specimens for preservation at his museum. Both men had "conversion experiences" (xix) regarding the bison, although Roosevelt initially viewed their extermination as an unfortunate consequence of white conquest of the West. Hornaday, after personally killing some of the last wild bison in the Plains, worked to save the animals from extinction. Eventually the two men met and joined forces as prominent members of the American Bison Society, a group charged with preservation. After multiple chapters focused on details surrounding Roosevelt's relationship with nature, section 3 widens the scope to place Roosevelt as a naturalist within the context of history and the world. Elliott West connects Roosevelt's thoughts and actions about big business, immigration, and conservation to the American West and its place within the American story, while Ian Tyrrell looks at Roosevelt's influence on the world stage and his impact on conservation beyond the United States. There are occasional errors in the book. The University of Iowa is not at Ames (138), for example, and at least one author presents an ahistorical interpretation of the near-extinction of the bison (127). At other times, the book would have benefited from closer [End Page 267] editing. Jenkinson is unclear about whether Roosevelt and Hornaday were true friends or just professional acquaintances, for example. There are also virtually no historical women in the entire book. Inconsistencies and omissions aside, Theodore Roosevelt: Naturalist in the Arena is a welcome addition to the Roosevelt historiography. Its interdisciplinary approach allows for diverse topics and points of view, grounded by their shared connection to the natural world and Roosevelt's place within it. Julie Courtwright Department of History Iowa State University Copyright © 2023 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

The Conversion of a Cork Candle-Maker

ABSTRACT In 1788, Cork candle-maker Cadwallader Acteson was driven to repent of his sins by a host of otherworldly visitants. The story was recorded and circulated in manuscript, almost certainly by the Methodist writer Hester Ann Rogers. This article is a transcription of the copy, ascribed to Elizabeth Ritchie, that resides at the Methodist Archives and Research Centre, John Rylands Research Institute and Library, Manchester. Cadwallader’s idiosyncratic story offers a window into gender roles and conceptions of agency in the late eighteenth century, and sheds light on how Methodist notions of the conversion experience might fuse with the beliefs of local communities.

‘Strangely Un-warmed’: The absence of emotion in the experience of conversion during the All Scotland Crusade of 1955

Billy Graham was one of the world’s most famous Christian evangelists in the twentieth century. He visited Scotland in 1955 and led a six-week Crusade at the Kelvin Hall in Glasgow. Hundreds of thousands of people attended these rallies, listened to Graham preach and many were converted. Revivalist conversions are important moments in people’s lives that have often provoked powerful emotional responses and found an expression in bodily manifestations. The anguish and subsequent relief, created by revival sermons have frequently induced children, young people, men and women to demonstrate their new birth with physical expressions. This paper will discuss the manner in which Billy Graham discouraged displays of emotion during the All Scotland Crusade. It will examine his book Peace with God and the sermons he preached at the Kelvin Hall in order to determine how he presented conversion as an experience devoid of strong affections. It will further explore why he actively dissuaded people, who attended his Glasgow campaign in 1955, from demonstrative behaviour when they responded to his altar calls.

Psychoanalysis, the Sufi, and the Story

Psychoanalysis, the Sufi, and the Story

Religious Conversion to Converts at the Indonesian Chinese Islamic Association Palembang, Indonesia

The ethnic Chinese in Indonesia mostly adheres to the religion of their ancestors, such as Christianity, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Only a small portion of the ethnic Chinese converted to Islam, and when they embraced Islam became a minority the Chinese community. Those who are a minority among minorities, are very important to research. This study aims to determine the experience of religious conversion in converts at the Indonesian Chinese Islamic Association (Persatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia, PITI) of Palembang. This research uses a qualitative method with a descriptive approach. The participants of this study were three Chinese converts. The data of this study were obtained by semi-structured interviews. Then the results were analyzed using the Miles and Huberman method. The results of this study indicate there are four main problems experienced by participants, namely towards the process of religious conversion, when converting to religion, after becoming a convert, and changing themselves. In general, this research concludes that participants experience changes that occur not only in themselves, but also in their social interactions.

Four Motivations of Conversion to Islam: Japanese Muslims

In this study, the phenomenon of conversion is analysed in the context of the experiences of Japanese Muslim converts. The purpose of this study is to understand the processes leading to conversion to Islam among Japanese and to explore religious conversion motifs of Japanese Muslim converts, thus making a conceptual contribution to the existing conversion literature. The problems of the research were, understanding the conditions leading Japanese to Islam, exploring circumstances the Japanese had started to develop an interest towards Islam and Muslims, and finally discovering the main motivating factors of their conversion. With this aim, the research has been designed as qualitative research. A combination of phenomenology and grounded theory research methods were applied in order to understand the essence of the conversion experience of Japanese Muslims and also to develop a theoretical explanation for their conversion. A total of 2 years and 3 months, between September 2016 - December 2017 and February 2019 - January 2020, were spent in Tokyo, Japan for the fieldwork. The data is derived from the semi-structured interviews, participant observation and field study notes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 women and 30 men, in total 62 Japanese Muslims, whose ages are changing between 19 and 81. The participants were reached via snowball and purposive sampling methods. Most of the Japanese Muslims interviewed are from Tokyo, and some reside in other cities in Japan. The events and activities of various mosques, masjids and associations, especially of the Tokyo Mosque and Turkish Cultural Centre and the Japanese Muslim Association, were participated in order to make observations. Additionally, field notes were kept during these visits. Waseda University library and its resources were consulted for the literature research. It is discovered that Japanese conversion to Islam is a social process, led by their encounters with Muslims. Most of the time, their first memorable encounter with Islam took place in the social context, overseas, during their study abroad, business or leisure travel, or at their work and schools, or via their romantic interests within Japan. Few of them got introduced to Islam via media or their personal interests. Upon their encounters, the Japanese, who were not seriously dissatisfied with their existing living conditions and beliefs before, and who were not in search of a new way of life and belief, began to be interested in Islam in different ways. It is also discovered they had a lack of strong prejudice against Islam, thus following their encounters, they had an open attitude learning towards the religion and the people. In this study, four motivational factors discovered influential on Japanese conversion to Islam: social, intellectual, psychological and pragmatic. In social motivations, desires to be included in the Muslim community they encountered, to be like them, and to lead a life them are strong. Participants in this category are interested in human relations, perspectives, attitudes and behaviours of Muslims. They were impressed by the closeness of family relations, by the idea of an international Muslim brotherhood-sisterhood, kindness, sincerity and helpfulness they observed among Muslims, and their courage towards calamities of life. In this group, the participants are most interested in Muslims. In the intellectual motivations, their primary motivation is their conviction of Islam intellectually. The attention of participants was attracted by the theoretical and ideological aspects of Islam, its teachings and its belief system. They began asking questions about Islam to the Muslims around them. Some were convinced by clear, simple and sensible answers they received. Some found similarities between Islam and Japanese culture, and felt close to Islam. Some were interested in the Islamic social system. Lastly, some participants who were Christians previously found Islam as the next logical step they could continue. In the psychological motivations category, the participants are in need of a belief and a quest for a God prior to their encounters. The idea of a God with an infinite power, who can protect them from their fears and anxieties and who can always watch over them attracted them. Most of the participants in this category, while describing their experiences, explained that they realised their need following their encounters with Islam and Muslims. Few had emotional experiences hearing the sound of the adhan and the Qur’an, and participating in the prayer. The last motivations are the pragmatic ones. In this category, Islam and conversion are instruments for participants who had other interests. Some converted for marriage with their Muslim partners, some for business and scholarship opportunities.

Round Table Conversations on Oppression, Racism, and Religious Oppression

This study empirically examines the experience of 196 undergraduate students from two universities, one a secular state institution and the other a Christian college, enrolled in courses on human diversity. The students engaged in structured conversations as a vehicle for increasing the students’ understanding of the lived experiences of others. Conversation topics included understandings of racial and religious oppression. The goal of the study was for students to intentionally engage in structured conversations about contentious topics (oppression, race, and religious oppression) to develop an understanding of the lived experiences of others. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed, and the findings are presented. The conversation experiences were universally found by students at both institutions of higher education to be overwhelmingly meaningful.

Born-again Muslims? Intra-religious Conversion and the Tablighi Jama’at

ABSTRACT Since its inception in 1920s British India, the Tablighi Jama’at (TJ) has grown into a global movement of faith renewal, animating grassroots Muslim communities around the world. Based on sustained ethnographic fieldwork with the British branch of the movement, this article proposes a concept of ‘intra-religious conversion’ to capture a key modality of its impact in everyday Muslim lives. By this is denoted a shift from a nominal form of Islamic practice to one of passionate devotion. Multiple interview narratives are presented to dissect the conversion experience through a series of precipitating push and pull factors, of which ‘affective ties’ and ‘intensive interaction’ emerge as key. Three key reasons for TJ’s enduring appeal to British-born male Muslims are suggested: (1) its propensity to transform the individual’s relationship with his religion from a ‘passive consumer’ to an ‘active purveyor’; (2) its fostering of strong bonds of belonging and brotherhood; (3) its ability to offer certainty in a world of flux. The findings challenge previous scholarship on British TJ by demonstrating its ongoing popularity among successive generations of Muslims, though reasons why followers may drift away from the movement after undergoing life-changing intra-religious conversion experiences are also explored.

When Novels Were Books

When Novels Were Books

Fenomenologi Spiritual Experience Pada Mualaf Yang Berlatar Belakang Kristen

A mualaf must go through a long process before deciding to do a conversion. That process of religious conversion might allows mualaf run into spiritual experience. The aim of this research article is to describe the spiritual experience who experienced by mualaf that previously a Christian. Spiritual experience is a series event that are unusual, unpredictable, and have ultimate meaning. This research used qualitative research method and used a phenomenological paradigm. The participants in this research consisted of two people who converted their religion from Christianity to Islam. The result of this research is that spiritual experience who experienced by every single person is not same. Spiritual experience in religious conversion that experienced by participants can give positive impact for their lives. So it can be concluded that by spiritual experience, participants will get a deeper understanding of religion and can interpret their lives.

John Song: Modern Chinese Christianity and the Making of a New Man, by Daryl R. Ireland.

Until now, scholars have remembered the story of Chinese revivalist John Song (Song Shangjie) primarily in the form of variations on a single theme: that of Song’s dramatic encounter with Jesus and resultant conversion experience while a student at Union Theological Seminary in New York, of his facing discrimination under modernist professors who lured him into a mental institution, and of his returning to China to propagate a fundamentalist expression of Christianity through his influential revivals. Daryl Ireland, in John Song: Modern Chinese Christianity and the Making of a New Man, draws on previously unreleased archival material to promote a different version of the story: one featuring Song’s repeated revising of his own faith testimony. Ireland makes the case that Song’s continual reinvention of himself corresponded to the cultural movement in twentieth-century China centered on renewal on both the national and individual levels.The introduction, subtitled “The Quest to Become New,” features the May Fourth Movement, beginning in 1919 and building on the larger New Culture Movement, in which proponents sought to modernize all of China in order to strengthen the nation and overcome vulnerability to foreign oppression. In chapter 1 Ireland reinterprets Song’s sojourn in New York, including at the Bloomingdale Hospital for mental patients. Ireland unveils accounts from Song’s personal journal about intimate spiritual interactions with an all-consuming figure Song called “the Mother,” whose identity apparently combined those of three women accompanying Jesus in the Gospel of Luke: Mary, Jesus’ mother; Mary Magdalene; and Susanna (23). Song’s understanding of the Mother evokes the deities Guanyin and the Queen Mother of the West associated with Chinese Buddhist and indigenous cosmology (34).Ireland asserts in chapter 2 that it was in China, after conversing with missionary W. B. Cole, that Song truly came to view his New York experience as an example of Jesus’s intervention—rather than the Mother’s— and also as a conservative victory in the Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy (37). Ireland claims that Song’s career as an evangelist was characterized by his repeated reinterpretation of his testimony, in addition to his strategy to invite the hundreds of thousands who attended his revivals to likewise sever ties with their past and become new. In chapter 3 Ireland describes Song’s adoption of a three-step revivalist method of preaching through the Bethel Mission, as well as techniques associated with traditional Chinese storytelling (74, 78). Chapters 4 and 5 describe Song’s ministry as an independent, itinerant revivalist, marked by wild popularity and significant expansion among the “petty urbanites” (114–15). Chapter 6 highlights the ways in which Song’s scientific education—including a PhD in chemistry—afforded him leeway to promote a supernatural spirituality which the government deemed superstitious, but which women often found salient (156). Chapter 7 emphasizes Song’s faith healing, an alternative route to the bodily renewal which those longing to become New Men and New Women so fervently sought (202). Due to its expansive reach, the expression of Christianity Song promoted—associated with traveling Bible teachers, supernatural healing, and urban life—remains the prevalent form in China and its Southeast Asian diaspora today (204–5, 207).This book offers a nuanced portrait of Song’s ministry and introduces a fresh perspective on his conversion. In retelling Song’s story, Ireland compellingly highlights the influence of women on Song’s work, including his sister (148); his female supervisors at the Bethel Mission (183–84); Mrs. Guan, a woman from whom Song willingly receives spiritual correction (136); and the many Singaporean women serving on evangelistic bands in response to his invitation (145). Ireland also underscores Song’s penchant for applying feminine imagery to himself and to Jesus (127, 148–49, 201). One question I would raise relates to Ireland’s interpretation of Song’s relationship with the Mother. Ireland asserts that Song eventually came to realize that “it was not her, but Jesus Christ” with whom he had interacted at Bloomingdale (51). Given Song’s account of the Mother as one who revealed to him “the failures of Jesus Christ” (23), however, I find it difficult to imagine Song conflating Jesus and the Mother. In light of Song’s claim that individuals who “invoke the spirits” thereby “become the subject of them” (192), I wonder if Song reinterpreted at least some aspects of his connection to the Mother not as union with Jesus, but with a malevolent spirit. Nevertheless, with its groundbreaking research and captivating style, John Song constitutes an invaluable scholarly contribution. I highly recommend this book to professors of World Christianity and church history, and also to seminary students interested in the development of Chinese Christianity.