Convergent Margin Setting Research Articles

Thermodynamic Modeling of Fluid-Rock Interaction at Mid-Crustal to Upper-Mantle Conditions

Fluid-rock interaction is important in a wide range of settings in the middle crust to the upper mantle. Fluids are liberated in the crust during prograde metamorphism in convergent-margin settings. At greater depth, devolatilization of subducting lithosphere plays a major role in global element cycling, metasomatic alteration of the mantle, and the genesis of arc magmas. Mafic magmas produced in these settings may stall in the lower crust and liberate volatiles that metasomatize surrounding rocks and trigger production of silicic magmas of crustal derivation. Mounting evidence points to an important role for metasomatic alteration by saline brines in the genesis of some lower-crustal granulite-facies metamorphic terranes. Unlike shallow geothermal systems or low-grade metamorphic environments, there has been only limited progress in modeling the fluid-rock interaction that characterizes the deeper geologic systems enumerated above. Such phase-equilibrium models require as input the chemical potential, μ i μ i ≡ ( ∂ G i ∂ n i ) P , T (1) of the participating phases or species i , where G i is the Gibbs free energy of i , n i is the number of moles of i , P is pressure, and T is temperature. At the P and T of interest, μ i = μ i ∘ + R T l n a i (2) Where μ° is standard state chemical potential, a is activity, R is the gas constant, and T is absolute temperature. It is challenging to quantify the right-hand terms in Equation (2) at P and T ranging from the middle crust to the upper mantle. This is chiefly because of (1) limitations in our quantitative knowledge of key properties of relevant solutes and H2O, and (2) uncertainty in how properly to model solute activities at the requisite conditions. As a consequence, aqueous geochemists have been discouraged from plying their trade in the numerous deep geologic systems in which fluid-rock interaction may play a major role in the Earth’s chemical and physical evolution. …

Island arc-type bimodal magmatism in the eastern Tianshan Belt, Northwest China: Geochemistry, zircon U–Pb geochronology and implications for the Paleozoic crustal evolution in Central Asia

The bimodal association of basalts and rhyolites in the Hongshankou area of the East Tianshan area (NW China) provides an important suite to investigate magma petrogenesis and tectonics evolution in a convergent margin setting. In this study we present petrological, geochemical and zircon U–Pb geochronological data from the basalts and rhyolites. Zircons from the basalts yield crystallization ages of 347.1±3.9Ma whereas those from the rhyolites are dated as 344.4±1.9 and 345.0±2.5Ma. The major and trace element signatures of basalts suggest high alumina basalt (HAB) as the source magma which was generated from metasomatised asthenosphere mantle. Both the mafic and felsic rocks are enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE) and large ion lithophile elements (LILE), and are depleted in high field strength elements (HFSE). Broadly homogenous Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd isotopic compositions of mafic and felsic rocks are also characteristic. The basalts display a distinct enrichment in incompatible elements and positive εNd(345Ma) (from +5.87 to +8.25). We envisage a subduction-related origin to account for the LILE enrichment with arc-like melts (enriched in Th and LREE and depleted in Nb, with εNd(345Ma)>+6) produced through the partial melting of a depleted-mantle source, and the involvement of minor crustal component. The rhyolites also display high εNd(345Ma) (from +6.35 to +8.53). Consequently, we suggest a mixing process between a source similar to mid-ocean ridge basalt (depleted end-member mantle) and arc-like magmas for the petrogenesis of the mafic rocks, whereas the rhyolites are best interpreted to have formed by fractional crystallization from the parental magma of the basalts. Several lines of evidence from elemental and isotopic geochemistry suggest a close genetic relationship between the mafic and felsic rocks in the Hongshankou bimodal suites. We propose that the essentially bimodal character of this complex reflects the features of back-arc extensional magmatism, induced by the subduction of the Junggar plate during the Late Paleozoic.

Petrogenesis of high-K metagranites in the Kerala Khondalite Belt, southern India: a possible magmatic-arc link between India, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar

The Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt (KKB), southern India preserves a distinct high-grade terrain that is interpreted to have been situated adjacent to Madagascar and Sri Lanka during Gondwana assembly. As such, it has become a major focus for testing models of supercontinent amalgamation and dispersal. The lithounits of KKB have remarkable petrological similarities to the Highland Complex (HC) of Sri Lanka and south-central Madagascar. However, there is no well-constrained petrogenetic model for the KKB that fits explicitly within a supercontinent reconstruction model. We present here results from our on-going studies on the origin and evolution of K-rich (potassic, where K2O/Na2O>1) gneisses of KKB in relation to Proterozoic supercontinent events. Our results show, in a major departure from earlier metasedimentary origin, that potassic gneisses are metamorphosed granitoids. The metagranitoid samples display high K2O contents and low Al2O3/(FeO+MgO+TiO2) values. They are moderate to strongly peraluminous (ASI values ranging from 1.05 to 1.47) rocks showing mineralogical, petrological, and geochemical characteristics distinctive of the high-K calc-alkaline suites. Typical of igneous suites, the high-K metagranites show minor variation in chemical compositions with most oxides showing negative correlation with SiO2. Geochemistry illustrates distinctive features of arc-related magmas with LILE (K, Rb, and Th) and LREE enriched patterns and considerable depletion of HSFE (Nb, Zr, and Ti). The high-K metagranites are further characterized by strong negative anomalies of Eu (Eu/Eu*=0.10–0.44) and Sr, suggesting melting in plagioclase stability field and retention of plagioclase in the residual phase. Petrogenetic discrimination for granitoids, using major and trace elements demonstrates that the high-K metagranites of the KKB formed by partial melting of igneous source in lower- to middle-crust levels. Overall the geochemical features are supportive of origin in relation to a convergent margin setting, possibly in a continental magmatic arc system, which can be connected to the amalgamation and dispersal of continental fragments in a supercontinent event. This study, therefore, provides a lead towards more robust comparisons between the Proterozoic supercontinent events and processes.

Geochemistry of a komatiitic, boninitic, and tholeiitic basalt association in the Mesoarchean Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, Southern Cross Domain, Yilgarn craton: Implications for mantle sources and geodynamic setting of banded iron formation

Komatiite–basalt magmatism and Algoma-type banded iron formation (BIF) of Archean greenstone terranes have common time series, but there are few constraints on the geodynamic setting in which BIF were precipitated. The ∼3.0Ga Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (KGB), Southern Cross Domain, Yilgarn craton, exhibits an greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphosed lithostratigraphic series, including four predominantly mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences (S1–S4) with prominent BIF horizons (and local basal pyrite-dominated massive sulfide lenses) in between. Petrography, XRD, high-precision major, trace high field strength, and REE element chemistry of representative ultramafic and mafic rocks from S1, S2, and S3 are consistent with a komatiitic, boninitic, and tholeiitic basalt association. Komatiites are Al-depleted and Al-undepleted (Al2O3/TiO2 12–28 and (Gd/Yb)N, ≥1) endorsing a zoned plume and/or melting over a range of depths. The boninite-series rocks (Al2O3/TiO2 28–45 and (Gd/Yb)N, <1) preserve characteristic U-shaped REE patterns and positive Zr–Hf/MREE anomalies. Komatiites include uncontaminated members and counterparts contaminated by metasomatized continental mantle lithosphere, suggesting eruption proximal to a rifted arc setting, whereas boninite-series were erupted at an intraoceanic arc, collectively consistent with plume eruption into a convergent margin. Al-depleted and Al-undepleted komatiites plot close together to the mantle array on the Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb discrimination plot of Pearce (2008), implying a depleted, mildly heterogeneous, source for the mantle plume from which komatiites erupted. Boninites lie parallel to and above the mantle array, in the field of intraoceanic arcs, in keeping with their inferred oceanic convergent margin setting. Ratios of Nb/Yb extend to lower and higher values than komatiites implying a more heterogeneous upper mantle source of the subarc wedge.The KGB exhibits the first reported boninite-suite rocks in the Southern Cross Domain, Yilgarn craton. Conclusively, the komatiitic, boninitic, and tholeiitic basalt association suggests that BIF and basal massive pyrite lenses of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt were precipitated from low-temperature submarine discharge of a seawater-dominated hydrothermal system driven by magmatic systems of a mantle plume erupting in a forearc convergent margin suprasubduction ophiolite.

Late Neoproterozoic volcanics and associated granitoids at Wadi Ranga, south Eastern Desert, Egypt: A transition from subduction related to intra-arc magmatism

The late Neoproterozoic of Wadi Ranga area, south Eastern Desert was characterized by extensive magmatism consisting predominantly of calc-alkaline older granitoids, Ranga volcanics and granite porphyry intrusions forming a belt of volcanic-intrusive complexes. Geological studies of the Ranga volcanics revealed two sequences of volcanic suites: the older mafic sequence composed essentially of basalt/basaltic andesite lava flows and the associated pyroclastics, while the younger felsic one represented by pitchstone porphyry. Geochemically, the older granitoids are exhibit low K-calc-alkaline characters and most likely formed in a convergent margin (arc) tectonic environment. Basalt/basaltic andesites are compositionally uniform with tholeiitic affinity. They have trace element characteristics of arc related volcanics with low Nb (0.2–0.9ppm), Zr/Nb ratios of 40–81 with an average 54 compared to 32 in average N-MORB, signify a convergent margin setting with a depleted mantle wedge. Low Mg# (45 to 60 with an average 51), Co and Ni contents may be indicative of a non-plume-influenced mantle wedge. Compositionally, these mafic volcanics are commensurate with modern intra-arc basalts. REE modeling indicates that the magma from which these mafic volcanics were formed was generated by about 17–30% partial melting of a depleted mantle that composed mainly of spinel lherzolite in an extensional marginal basin. Geochemical characters of major, trace and REE patterns of the granite and pitchstone porphyries proved their formation from the same magma source which is originally different from the magma producing the mafic volcanics. The relative enrichment in K2O and LREE of the pitchstone porphyry along with the depletion in CaO and MgO relative to granite porphyry probably resulted from crustal contamination processes.

Formation of Taconic mélanges and broken formations in the Hamburg Klippe, Central Appalachian Orogenic Belt, Eastern Pennsylvania

The Hamburg Klippe of the Central Appalachian orogenic belt exposed in eastern Pennsylvania displays a complex record of poly-phase mélange and broken formation development in a convergent margin setting. It includes an imbricate stack of tectonic slices, which consist of upper Cambrian to Upper Ordovician deep-water and continental slope sedimentary rocks, emplaced by gravity sliding onto the Laurentian passive margin during deposition of the Upper Ordovician Martinsburg Formation. Based on their internal structure and stratigraphy, the block-matrix ratios and relations, and the inferred tectonic settings of origin, we have differentiated the following mélanges and broken formations, whose evolutionary stages coincide with specific deformational phases in a complete orogenic cycle from subduction to collision: (i) sedimentary broken formations without exotic blocks, formed by in situ and local down-slope remobilization during the early stages of closure of the Octoraro Sea basin in the Early Ordovician; (ii) two types of sedimentary mélanges with exotic blocks, formed at the front of the advancing accretionary wedge during the Middle Ordovician subduction of the Laurentian continental margin beneath a microcontinent–magmatic arc tectonic assembly; (iii) layer-parallel, extensional broken formation and a diapiric mélange, formed in the outer trench and at the toe of the accretionary wedge, respectively, during the early–Late Ordovician; (iv) precursory olistostromes, formed during the Late Ordovician collisional episodes as the Hamburg Klippe was emplaced in the Martinsburg Formation on the downgoing Laurentian continental margin; and, (v) contractional deformation-related broken formations, formed at the base of main thrust faults overprinting the previously formed mélanges and broken formations. This sequential development of different mélange types in the Central Appalachians was strongly controlled by the degree of consolidation of the layered strata and their rheological differences, the structural level of mélange formation within the accretionary wedge, and the kinematics of deformational processes.

Zircon Trace Element and O–Hf Isotope Analyses of Mineralized Intrusions from El Teniente Ore Deposit, Chilean Andes: Constraints on the Source and Magmatic Evolution of Porphyry Cu–Mo Related Magmas

Abstract Intrusive rocks related to porphyry copper mineralization are part of the wide diversity of subduction-related, mantle-derived, igneous rocks generated in convergent margin settings. What differentiates them from barren igneous rocks results ultimately from the multi-component and multi-stage processes that condition magma composition in these settings. Unfortunately, the petrogenetic history is largely obscured by the pervasive alteration that affects rocks in these deposits. We address this issue through the study of zircon grains from El Teniente, one of the largest known porphyry Cu–Mo deposits in the world. El Teniente belongs to the Miocene–Pliocene Cu–Mo belt of the Central Chilean Andes, which formed in a short timespan during the Cenozoic constructive period of the orogen. Previously U–Pb dated zircon grains were selected for re-examination of their morphological characteristics and in situ analysis of chemical (rare earth element, Hf, Y and Ti contents) and isotopic (Hf, O) composition. They are from six intermediate to felsic syn- to late-mineralization, intrusive units covering a timespan of ∼1·6 Myr. The El Teniente zircons have compositional and morphological characteristics indicating crystallization from a series of cogenetic melts. However, a minor hydrothermal imprint is documented in the presence of crystals with mottled surfaces that correspond to thin high U–Th overgrowth rims (low-luminescent features in cathodoluminescence images). In terms of any other chemical and isotopic characteristic, these are indistinguishable from the main mineral populations. Zircons define morphological and chemical trends reflecting an evolution towards more differentiated magma compositions, lower crystallization temperatures and increased cooling rates with decreasing age of intrusion. Hf and O isotopic compositions are remarkably uniform at grain, sample and deposit scale. This, together with the general absence of older inherited zircon components, the lack of correlations between isotopic signature and whole-rock composition and high initial εHf values (total average 7·4 ± 1·2; 2σ), rules out involvement of any significant crustal contamination in the genesis of the El Teniente magmas. The Hf isotopic composition indicates a relatively juvenile source, but with some crustal residence time. The δ18OZrc weighted mean of 4·76 ± 0·12‰ (2σ; 61 analyses) is at the lower limit of the normal mantle zircon range of 5·3 ± 0·6‰ (2σ), and might reflect crystallization from low-18O magmas. Hf isotopic compositions have a restricted range in initial εHf values between +6 and +10, identical to preceding Cenozoic barren magmatic activity in Central Chile. These igneous rocks are the product of nearly 25 Myr of subduction-related magmatic activity, developed under contrasting tectonic regimes and margin configurations. This suggests a primary control of the isotopic signature by a stable long-lived MASH-type (melting, assimilation, storage and homogenization) reservoir in the deep lithosphere. In the context of the Cenozoic evolution of Central Chile we argue that dehydration melting in the enriched MASH reservoir occurred as a consequence of increasing crustal thickness, and was prompted by a high-temperature thermal regime resulting from long-lasting preceding magmatism. This process can also fractionate O to generate low-18O magmas. At the time of El Teniente formation, dehydration melting occurred coevally with arc migration, which probably influenced the fertility of the magmas by increasing the melt component derived from this process relative to the component derived from primary basalt differentiation. At a regional scale, such reactions are expected to occur as a consequence of progressive crustal thickening during the constructive period of the Andes, and can explain the simultaneous generation of porphyry deposits in the Miocene–Pliocene Cu–Mo belt of Central Chile.

A serpentinite-hosted ecosystem in the Southern Mariana Forearc

Several varieties of seafloor hydrothermal vents with widely varying fluid compositions and temperatures and vent communities occur in different tectonic settings. The discovery of the Lost City hydrothermal field in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge has stimulated interest in the role of serpentinization of peridotite in generating H(2)- and CH(4)-rich fluids and associated carbonate chimneys, as well as in the biological communities supported in highly reduced, alkaline environments. Abundant vesicomyid clam communities associated with a serpentinite-hosted hydrothermal vent system in the southern Mariana forearc were discovered during a DSV Shinkai 6500 dive in September 2010. We named this system the "Shinkai Seep Field (SSF)." The SSF appears to be a serpentinite-hosted ecosystem within a forearc (convergent margin) setting that is supported by fault-controlled fluid pathways connected to the decollement of the subducting slab. The discovery of the SSF supports the prediction that serpentinite-hosted vents may be widespread on the ocean floor. The discovery further indicates that these serpentinite-hosted low-temperature fluid vents can sustain high-biomass communities and has implications for the chemical budget of the oceans and the distribution of abyssal chemosynthetic life.

The geochemistry of host arc volcanic rocks to the Co–O epithermal gold deposit, Eastern Mindanao, Philippines

Mindanao is the second largest island of the Philippines and is located in the southern part of the archipelago. It comprises the suture zone between the Eurasian and the Philippine plate, which is displayed in the Philippine Mobile Belt. Eastern Mindanao is part of the Philippine Mobile Belt and outcropping rocks are mainly Eocene to Pliocene in age related to episodes of arc volcanism alternating with sedimentation.New high-precision elemental analysis of the Oligocene magma series, hosting the Co-O epithermal Au deposit, which represents an arc segment in the central part of Eastern Mindanao, revealed dominantly calc-alkaline rocks ranging in composition between basalt and dacites. Major element trends (MgO vs. TiO2 and Fe2O3) are comparable to other magmas in Central and Eastern Mindanao as well as other SW Pacific Islands such as Borneo. Rare earth and trace element distribution patterns display typical island arc signatures highlighted by the conjunction of LILE-enrichment with troughs at Nb, Ta, and Ti. Ratios of Zr/Nb in basalts vary between 17 and 39, signifying a depleted subarc mantle wedge comparable to the range of MORB, and other Indonesian island arc basalts. In basalts, Nb/Ta and Zr/Sm ratios are 12–37 and 14–27 respectively indicative of deep melts of rutile-eclogite subducted slab, as well as fluids, infiltrating the mantle wedge source of basalts.Moderate large ion lithophile element contents and low Th/La and Th/Ce ratios suggest no significant slab-derived components such as sediment or crustal fragments. The comparatively low Ce and Yb values in basalts, but also andesites and dacites, are consistent with a thin arc crust related to an intraoceanic convergent margin setting. This is further supported by Nb contents in basalts that range between 1 and 3ppm and are within the range of modern oceanic convergent margin basalts. The range of HREE fractionation signifies that basaltic melts separated at deeper levels of the subarc wedge, possibly between the forearc and arc axis, followed by a calc-alkaline convergent margin magma suite involving shallower crustal AFC near the central arc sector.The analysed Oligocene arc segment is related to a potentially steep to intermediate dipping subduction zone in an extensional to neutral geotectonic regime. The large subduction accretion complex of the Philippine Mobile Belt provides an ideal setting for significant metal deposits during its entire evolution. This is evidenced in the Eastern Mindanao Ridge, which hosts substantial porphyry Cu and epithermal Au deposits.

U–Pb zircon chronology of the Pangidi–Kondapalle layered intrusion, Eastern Ghats belt, India: Constraints on Mesoproterozoic arc magmatism in a convergent margin setting

The Pangidi–Kondapalle layered intrusion is emplaced within high-grade supracrustal rocks in the southern sector of the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt proximal to the south-eastern periphery of the Indian plate. This layered complex consists mainly of anorthosites and gabbronorites with pyroxenite cumulates containing orthopyroxenites and chromitites in a regressive intrusive sequence. Here we report laser ablation ICP-MS data and REE geochemistry of zircons from three co-spatial anorthositic bodies in this complex. Our results show mean 207Pb/206Pb ages of 1634±18Ma (MSWD=0.55) for the anorthosite from Pangidi. Two anorthosite samples from Kondapalle yield mean207Pb/206Pb ages of 1628±36Ma (MSWD=0.54) and 1693±110Ma (MSWD=5.5). The zircons from all the anorthosite samples show high REE contents, prominent HREE enrichment and a conspicuous positive Eu anomaly, suggesting a common melt source. The prominent Mesoproterozoic ages revealed from our U–Pb dating of zircons from these layered complexes suggest subduction-related magmatic underplating in a convergent margin setting associated with the amalgamation of the Columbia-derived fragments within the Neoproterozoic supercontinent.

A Paleozoic subduction complex in Korea: SHRIMP zircon U–Pb ages and tectonic implications

The Wolhyeonri complex in the southwestern margin of the Korean Peninsula is divided into three lithotectonic units: Late Paleozoic Zone I to the west, Middle Paleozoic Zone II in the middle and Early Paleozoic Zone III to the east. Zones II and III display characteristics of continental arc magmatic sequence. Zone II is dominated by mafic metavolcanics, whereas zone III is characterized by the presence of dismembered serpentinite bodies including chaotic mélange. These zones are proposed to have been formed in a convergent margin setting associated with subduction. Here we present zircon SHRIMP U–Pb ages from the various units within the Wolhyeonri complex which reveal the Paleozoic tectonic history of the region. The Late Carboniferous ages obtained from the main shear zone between the Wolhyeonri complex and the Paleoproterozoic Gyeonggi massif are thought to mark the timing of continental arc magmatism associated with the subduction process. In contrast, Zone I with Neoproterozoic arc magmatic remnants might indicate deposition in a forearc basin. The Wolhyeonri complex also preserves strong imprints of the Triassic collisional event, including the presence of Middle Triassic high-pressure metabasites and eclogites near the eastern boundary of the Zone III. These range of radiogenic ages derived from the Wolhyeonri complex correlate well with subduction and accretion history between the North and South China cratons. Similar geochronological features have also been indentified from the Qinling, Tongbai–Xinxian, and northern Dabie areas in east-central China. The existence of Paleozoic coeval subduction in East Asia prior to the Triassic collision is broadly consistent with a regional tectonic linkage to Gondwana.

The effect of sediment recycling in subduction zones on the Hf isotope character of new arc crust, Banda arc, Indonesia

A large portion of Earth's crust is formed at convergent plate boundaries that are accompanied by the subduction of sediments that can contain evolved crust-derived detritus. Partial melting of such sediments can strongly affect the trace element and isotope geochemistry of new arc rocks. Here, we present high-precision Lu–Hf–Zr concentration data and Hf isotope compositions for a series of volcanic rocks from the Banda arc, East Indonesia, to quantify the transfer of subducted Hf to the Banda arc crust and address the influence of recycled Hf in subduction zones on the Hf isotope systematics of arc rocks.Along-arc from NE to SW, the 176Hf/177Hf decreases from 0.28314 to 0.28268 ranging from predominantly mantle-like ratios towards more crustal signatures. Hf–Nd isotope co-variations require low Nd/Hf in the arc magma source, inconsistent with fluid addition to the arc melts, but in agreement with the involvement of partial sediment melts. The systematic decrease in Hf–Nd isotopes infers a NE–SW along-arc increase in the involvement of subducted continental material (SCM) in the arc magma source, consistent with δ18O and Nd–Sr–Pb isotope constraints. The along-arc decrease in Hf isotopes coupled with increasing Zr/Hf (from 31.9 to 36.1) and decreasing Lu/Hf suggests that the newly produced arc lavas contain crustal-derived Hf as a result of partial melting of SCM associated with the breakdown of zircon. Based on recent experimental estimates of temperatures required to achieve zircon breakdown, we infer that slab surface temperatures in the Banda arc region need to be as high as 925°C.As a consequence of the inheritance of non-radiogenic Hf from SCM, the juvenile Banda arc crust exhibits Hf isotope model ages biased by hundreds of millions of years. We conclude that crust-formation ages derived from Hf isotope ratios of convergent margin rocks and their constituent minerals (such as zircon) can be geologically meaningless mixing ages, even when they readily preserve low δ18O values (i.e., <6.5). These findings are discussed with respect to the inferred origin of Hadaean zircons at convergent plate boundaries, which appear consistent with an origin in a convergent margin setting.

Turbidite system architecture and sedimentary processes along topographically complex slopes: the Makran convergent margin

AbstractThis study investigates the morphology and Late Quaternary sediment distribution of the Makran turbidite system (Makran subduction zone, north‐west Indian Ocean) from a nearly complete subsurface mapping of the Oman basin, two‐dimensional seismic and a large set of coring data in order to characterize turbidite system architecture across an active (fold and thrust belt) margin. The Makran turbidite system is composed of a dense network of canyons, which cut into high relief accreted ridges and intra‐slope piggyback basins, forming at some locations connected and variably tortuous paths down complex slopes. Turbidite activity and trench filling rates are high even during the Holocene sea‐level highstand conditions. In particular, basin‐wide, sheet‐like thick mud turbidites, probably related to major mass wasting events of low recurrence time, drape the flat and unchannellized Oman abyssal plain. Longitudinal depth profiles show that the Makran canyons are highly disrupted by numerous thrust‐related large‐scale knickpoints (with gradients up to 20° and walls up to 500 m high). At the deformation front, the strong break of slope can lead to the formation of canyon‐mouth ‘plunge pools’ of variable shapes and sizes. The plunge pools observed in the western Makran are considerably larger than those previously described in sub‐surface successions; the first insights into their internal architecture and sedimentary processes are presented here. Large plunge pools in the western Makran are associated with large scoured areas at the slope break and enhanced sediment deposition downstream: high‐amplitude reflectors are observed inside the plunge pools, while their flanks are composed of thin‐bedded, fine‐grained turbidites deposited by the uppermost part of the turbidity flows. Thus, these architectural elements are associated with strong sediment segregation leading to specific trench‐fill mechanisms, as only the finer‐grained component of the flows is transferred to the abyssal plain. However, the Makran accretionary prism is characterized by strong along‐strike variability in tectonics and fluvial input distribution that might directly influence the turbidite system architecture (i.e. canyon entrenchment, plunge pool formation or channel development at canyon mouths), the sedimentary dynamics and the resulting sediment distribution. Channel formation in the abyssal plain and trench‐fill characteristics depend on the theoretical ‘equilibrium’ conditions of the feeder system, which is related closely to the balance between erosion rates and tectonic regime. Thus, the Makran turbidite system constitutes an excellent modern analogue for deep‐water sedimentary systems with structurally complex depocentres, in convergent margin settings.

Thermal history and origin of the Tanzanian Craton from Pb isotope thermochronology of feldspars from lower crustal xenoliths

Common and radiogenic Pb isotopic compositions of plagioclase and anti-perthitic feldspars from granulite-facies lower crustal xenoliths from the Labait Volcano on the eastern margin of the Tanzanian Craton have been measured via laser ablation MC-ICP-MS. Common Pb in plagioclase and a single stage Pb evolution model indicate that the lower crust of the Tanzanian Craton was extracted from mantle having a 238U/ 204Pb of 8.1 ± 0.3 and a 232Th/ 238U of 4.3 ± 0.1 at 2.71 ± 0.09 Ga (all uncertainties are 2σ). Since 2.4 Ga, some orthoclase domains within anti-perthites have evolved with a maximum 238U/ 204Pb of 6 and 232Th/ 238U of 4.3. The spread in Pb isotopic composition in the anti-perthitic feldspars yields single crystal Pb–Pb isochrons of ∼ 2.4 Ga, within uncertainty of U–Pb zircon ages from the same sample suite. The Pb isotopic heterogeneities imply that these granulites resided at temperatures < 600 °C in the lower crust of the Tanzanian Craton from ca. 2.4 Ga to the present. In concert with the chemistry of surface samples, mantle xenoliths, and lower crustal xenoliths, our data imply that the cratonic lithosphere in Tanzania formed ca. ∼ 2.7 Ga, in a convergent margin setting, and has remained undisturbed since 2.7 Ga.

Largest Phanerozoic provinces of silicic volcanism: Tectonic position and genetic prerequisities

This paper presents a brief overview of largest Phanerozoic volcanic provinces of the Earth, which comprise the substantial volumes (over 105 km3) of silicic extrusive rocks. The provinces of this kind may re- present a separate geodynamic class, having the volume comparable to that of intraplate Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs), and being formed in convergent margin settings. The thermal energy preserved in the crust after a previous major magmatic event is considered to be an important factor affecting the volume of crust-derived magmas and playing a significant role in the formation of large provinces of silicic volcanism.

Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) Deposits through Earth History: Implications for Origin, Lithospheric Setting, and Distinction from Other Epigenetic Iron Oxide Deposits

The iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) group of deposits, initially defined following discovery of the giant Olympic Dam Cu-U-Au deposit, has progressively become too-embracing when associated deposits and potential end members or analogs are included. The broader group includes several low Ti iron oxide-associated deposits that include iron oxide (P-rich), iron oxide (F- and REE-rich), Fe or Cu-Au skarn, high-grade iron oxide-hosted Au ± Cu, carbonatite-hosted (Cu-, REE-, and F-rich), and IOCG sensu stricto deposits. Consideration of this broad group as a whole obscures the critical features of the IOCG sensu stricto deposits, such as their temporal distribution and tectonic environment, thus leading to difficulties in developing a robust exploration model. The IOCG sensu stricto deposits are magmatic-hydrothermal deposits that contain economic Cu and Au grades, are structurally controlled, commonly contain significant volumes of breccia, are commonly associated with presulfide sodic or sodic-calcic alteration, have alteration and/or brecciation zones on a large, commonly regional, scale relative to economic mineralization, have abundant low Ti iron oxides and/or iron silicates intimately associated with, but generally paragenetically older than, Fe-Cu sulfides, have LREE enrichment and low S sulfides (lack of abundant pyrite), lack widespread quartz veins or silicification, and show a clear temporal, but not close spatial, relationship to major magmatic intrusions. These intrusions, where identified, are commonly alkaline to subalkaline, mixed mafic (even ultramafic) to felsic in composition, with evidence for mantle derivation of at least the mafic end members of the suite. The giant size of many of the deposits and surrounding alteration zones, the highly saline ore fluids, and the available stable and radiogenic isotope data indicate release of deep, volatile-rich magmatic fluids through devolatization of causative, mantle-derived magmas and variable degrees of mixing of these magmatic fluids with other crustal fluids along regional-scale fluid flow paths. Precambrian deposits are the dominant members of the IOCG group in terms of both copper and gold resources. The 12 IOCG deposits with >100 tonnes (t) resources are located in intracratonic settings within about 100 km of the margins of Archean or Paleoproterozoic cratons or other lithospheric boundaries, and formed 100 to 200 m.y. after supercontinent assembly. Their tectonic setting at formation was most likely anorogenic, with magmatism and associated hydrothermal activity driven by mantle underplating and/or plumes. Limited amounts of partial melting of volatile-rich and possibly metal-enriched metasomatized early Precambrian subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM), fertilized during earlier subduction, probably produced basic to ultrabasic magmas that melted overlying continental crust and mixed with resultant felsic melts, with devolatilization and some penecontemporaneous incorporation of other lower to middle crustal fluids to produce the IOCG deposits. Preservation of near-surface deposits, such as Olympic Dam, is probably due to their formation above buoyant and refractory SCLM, which resisted delamination and associated uplift. Most Precambrian iron oxide (P-rich) or magnetite-apatite (Kiruna-type) deposits have a different temporal distribution, apparently forming in convergent margin settings prior to or following supercontinent assembly. It is only in the Phanerozoic that IOCG and magnetite-apatite deposits are roughly penecontemporaneous in convergent margin settings. The Phanerozoic IOCG deposits, such as Candelaria, Chile, occur in anomalous extensional to transtensional zones in the Coastal Cordillera, which are also the sites of mantle-derived mafic to felsic intrusions that are anomalous in an Andean context. This implies that special conditions, possibly detached slabs of metasomatized SCLM, may be required in convergent margin settings to generate world-class IOCG deposits. It is likely that formation of giant IOCG deposits was mainly a Precambrian phenomenon related to the extensive mantle underplating that impacted on buoyant metasomatized SCLM. Generally smaller and rarer Phanerozoic IOCG deposits formed in tectonic settings where conditions similar to those in the Precambrian were replicated.

Petrology and geochemistry of Mesozoic granitic rocks from the Nansha micro-block, the South China Sea: Constraints on the basement nature

There are several micro-blocks dispersed in the South China Sea (SCS), e.g., Xisha-Zhongsha block, Nansha block and Reed-Northeastern Palawan block, etc., but detailed petrological constraints on their basement nature were previously lacking. The magmatic ages for granitic rock samples from two dredge stations in the Nansha micro-block vary from 159 to 127 Ma, which are comparable to magmatic activities occurred in the northern margin (Pearl river mouth), HongKong and East China. Petrographic characteristics, major-, trace element and Sr–Nd isotopic data of nine samples from two dredged station performed in the Nansha micro-block, the SCS, are reported. Petrographically, these granitic rocks can be divided into two groups which underwent a complex history of magmatic process, i.e., tonalitic rock (Group I) and monzogranitic rock (Group II). The Rittmann index ( σ) for these rocks (1.9–3.1) suggest that they belong to calc-alkaline rocks. Group I rocks which is of typical I-type, have higher contents of TiO 2, Al 2O 3, FeO, MgO, CaO, Na 2O and P 2O 5, but lower values of SiO 2 and K 2O, when compared with those of Group II with I-type characteristics. Group I rocks are produced by partial melting of older Precambrian basement with the variable influence of mantle-derived magma which results from the interaction of released fluids from the subducted slab and the overlying mantle wedge in a general convergent margin setting, and Group II rocks result from partial melting of lower crustal basic rocks (amphibolite) and/or further partial melting of the Group I rocks associated with the variable influence from the underplating mantle-derived magma resulting from lithospheric extensional regime. Both Groups I and II have undergone assimilation and fractional crystallization (AFC) processes during its petrogenesis. This study therefore demonstrates that there exists a continental basement within micro-blocks in the South China Sea, and further supports the idea that a Middle Jurassic to Mid-Cretaceous subduction zone existed across the temporary Taiwan, Palawan to Southern Vietnam, which was associated with westward to northestward convergence of the Pacific Plate during Late Mesozoic. We suggest that this subduction zone may have been connected with the paleo-Pacific plate subduction zone offshore eastern China during Mesozoic era. This study provides petrologic data for the pre-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the South China Sea.

Major and trace element geochemistry and genesis of supracrustal rocks of the North Spirit Lake Greenstone belt, NW Ontario, Canada

Supracrustal rocks of the North Spirit Lake (NSL) greenstone belt comprise three stratigraphic units. The basal unit (Unit 1) consists of pillowed, massive and tuffaceous, tholeiitic basalts and komatiitic basalts (approximately 3.1 Ga) with minor interbeds of greywacke and black pelite displaying characteristics of turbidites and mass flow deposits. REE patterns indicate basalt genesis at comparatively shallow depths (spinel-lherzolite field). Although REE patterns and other trace element characteristics are similar to N-MORBs, concentrations of REE's and Groups IV and V incompatible elements are somewhat lower than in average N-MORB, suggesting comparatively high degrees of partial melting of a fertile mantle. The evidence for an active hydrothermal system (black smoker and “Lost City” types) during the late stages of subaqueous volcanism, the lack of calc-alkaline characteristics for the NSL volcanic rocks, and the absence of geological evidence of a convergent margin setting, together suggest that the rocks of Unit 1 originated at a spreading centre, and represent ocean floor, generated at about 3 Ga. Whether derived from a mantle plume or through upwelling mantle at a spreading centre, the source was more fertile than depleted MORB mantle. Sedimentary rocks of Units 1 and 2 provide evidence of a mixed compositional source that included intra-basinal basaltic material and an exotic tonalitic component. Sedimentary rocks of Unit 3 are derived almost exclusively from a tonalitic source, with derived sediments ranging from highly mineralogically mature to very immature. In spite of the highly active tectonic setting (i.e., rapid denudation rates), alumina-rich pelites are present in all the three Units, implying exceptionally rapid chemical weathering rates in the (tonalitic) source lands. Rapid weathering may be explained by a high CO 2 content in the Archean atmosphere. There is about a 300 Ma interval between Unit 1 volcanism at approximately 3.1 Ga, and igneous activity represented by the Bijou Point Complex which intrude rocks of Unit 3 at about 2.7 Ga. The basal volcanic rocks resemble MORBs whereas the young volcanic rocks are potassic and of calc-alkaline affinity. Although the rocks of the two basal units appear to have formed in or near a spreading center, the rocks of Unit 3 likely were produced in a subduction environment such as those found in island arcs or some continental margin settings. Together, the three units resemble products of a Wilson Cycle, operating between 3.1 and 2.7 Ga, with the calc-alkaline Bijou Point Igneous Complex representing terminal volcanism. Proof or rejection of this hypothesis requires additional detailed mapping, geochemical and geochronological investigations.

The three-dimensional thermo-mechanical signature of ridge subduction and slab window migration

We present a series of three-dimensional numerical models investigating possible thermal and mechanical effects of ridge subduction and slab window migration. Ridge subduction is a fundamental process of plate tectonics, and the geologic manifestations in the overriding lithosphere have been investigated in many convergent margin settings. Many of the geologic effects of slab window migration (e.g., anomalous high- T metamorphism in the forearc, non-arc-like magmatism in the volcanic arc) are explained primarily by the introduction of a region of hot, upwelling asthenospheric mantle in the subduction zone environment. Using end-member boundary conditions and idealized geometries, our models address the thermal and corresponding mechanical manifestations of slab window migration, and our results provide a general agreement with observations from interpreted regions of slab window migration. Our models show that protracted heating in the forearc region should result in protracted high-temperature metamorphism, associated rheologic weakening and strain partitioning and changes in the topographic uplift pattern in regions affected by slab window migration. Although these models are idealized, they do provide valuable insight into the geodynamics of slab window environments and provide a valuable starting point for further exploration.

Quenching of steam-charged pumice: Implications for submarine pyroclastic volcanism

Huge quantities of silicic pumice have been deposited in intra-oceanic convergent margin settings throughout Earth's history. The association of submarine silicic calderas with thick proximal accumulations of pumice lapilli suggests that these pyroclasts were deposited as a direct result of submarine eruptions. Yet when first erupted, these highly vesicular, gas-filled clasts had densities significantly less than seawater. Experiments carried out 1-atm on heated pumice samples whose vesicles were charged with steam, the dominant component of magmatic volatiles show that buoyancy of freshly erupted submarine pumice is transient. Upon quenching, the phase change of steam-to-liquid water creates strong negative pore pressures within the pumice vesicles that accelerate the absorption of surrounding water, generating high-density pumice and promoting rapid clast sinking. Variations in the physical properties of steam with temperature and pressure have important implications for submarine pyroclastic eruptions. Firstly, highly vesicular pumice can be deposited on the seafloor at temperatures elevated significantly above ambient if they are erupted at sufficient depths to remain wholly submarine (> ∼ 200 m) and either the fluid in which they cool contains heated water and/or they only absorb sufficient water to sink. Secondly, the rapid increase in density of the eruption column caused by condensation and the transition from buoyant (gas-filled) to denser (water-saturated) pumice lapilli, together with turbulent mixing with the surrounding seawater favour collapse and transport of pyroclasts in water-supported gravity currents. Finally, this mixing of the ejecta with seawater and the ease of water ingestion into permeable pumice clasts suggest that water-supported transport mechanisms can operate as primary dispersal processes in explosive submarine eruptions.