Conventional Wines Research Articles

Grapes and gains: the influence of farming methods on Austrian wine ratings and prices

ABSTRACT Purpose: The objective of this study is to ascertain whether there are statistically significant price differences between Austrian biodynamic, organic and conventional wines, and whether these wines are rated differently in an internationally recognised wine guide. Design A content analysis of the Austrian Gault&Millau Wine Guides 2015–2018 was carried out. The data analysed – 8,667 different wines featured in the four editions mentioned – included the names of the wineries, company size, region of origin, rating (points) and cellar door prices. Results The results show that biodynamic wines in the Austrian Gault&Millau wine guides 2015–2018 (928 in total) are significantly better (higher) rated and have higher cellar door prices than organic wines (1,180 positions) and conventional wines (the vast majority – 6,559 wines). No significant evidence was found for differences in cellar door prices between organic and conventional wines. Practical implications The results do not necessarily indicate that Austrian wines made from biodynamic grapes are better and more expensive than others. Rather, our results indicate that a large number of leading Austrian wine producers use biodynamic farming methods, and thus the average ratings and average prices of these wines are inherently higher.

Sensory attributes and quality perception of red natural wines: a comparative study in Spain and France

Although the definition of natural wine remains contested and still lacks official recognition, it can be broadly described as a wine made with organic or biodynamic grapes without oenological additives in the cellar and minimal intervention in all winemaking stages. Despite growing interest in natural wines, uncertainty prevails about their sensory and quality attributes among both consumers and experts. In light of this research gap, this study aims to determine, first, if there are specific sensory dimensions allowing to differentiate natural wine as a wine category from conventional wines; second, if this sensory dimension affects the perception of the quality; and third, to characterise the physicochemical differences in terms of basic oenological parameters between natural wines and their conventional counterparts. To do so, 24 red wines (12 self-defined as natural and 12 conventional wines) were sensory and chemically characterised. The sensory evaluation was first carried out by winemakers from Spain. It consisted of a descriptive task (labelled sorting task) followed by a quality evaluation under two conditions: with and without information regarding the production method. A second panel of French experts carried out the same quality assessment, also with and without information. The aim was to find out whether expectations existed linked to each type of wine and to explore potential cross-cultural effects. The results of the labelled sorting task showed that natural wines tended to be different from conventional wines, but the difference was not clear-cut. However, natural wines were perceived to be of lower quality than their conventional counterparts, both with and without the information provided, regardless of the origin of winemakers. Results of the chemical analysis showed that natural wines presented higher values for volatile and total acidity and turbidity, while they had lower values for total and free sulphur. The study points to the existence of sensory dimensions with an impact on overall quality associated with the production method.

Peculiarities of the Organic Wine in Galicia (NW Spain): Sensory Evaluation and Future Considerations

Although wine is one of the most studied beverages at a sensory level, there is practically no information on the particularities of organic wines from Galicia. Considering that different regions provide distinctive characteristics to wines, organic and conventional wines from the five Designations of Origin (DO) from Galicia were analyzed at chemical and sensory levels. Sensory analysis showed that organic cultivation favors distinctive quality wines. Organic wines obtained similar scores to conventional wines in the preference tests and, in some cases, they were preferred by the tasters. However, this was not the case with wines produced in climatologically unfavorable seasons. Differences between conventional and organic wines were strongly marked by other factors such as the vintage, the DO, the winemaking techniques, or the yeasts of each winery. The results of this study show that organic wine production favors the differentiation and diversification of Galician wines. This could increase the added value of organic wines and improve their choice in a crowded market.

The effect of environmental status signaling on Organically-produced wine purchase intentions

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of environmental status signaling (ESS) on organically produced wine purchase intentions (PI) of US wine consumers. Through two experimental studies employing validated scenarios followed by a brief survey, the prevalence of ESS is examined with respect to social status and consumption settings (private vs. public) using a sample of 764 U.S. wine consumers. Irrespective of status activation, PI for organically produced wines was significantly higher than that of the better-rated conventional wines. However, when consumption setting was manipulated as public through a Facebook post, the difference in PI between organically produced and higher rated conventional wines became insignificant, showing that consumers are reluctant to purchase organically produced wines publicly. Although consumers believe organically produced wines are beneficial to the environment, healthier, and superior in quality, it seems they are concerned that others might perceive such wines as poor-quality products. Marketing of organically produced wines should therefore focus on benefits on the environment, freshness, and health-related cues, instead of environmental status-driven signals. Making the consumption experience public through social media engagements might not be a fruitful marketing strategy also, as suggested by the findings of this study.

The Phenomenon of Natural Wines

Natural wines have largely entered the market creating a new commercial trend. Natural wines, a term that is current lacking a legal definition, often create misunderstandings regarding the quality of natural wines, the expectations of the consumer. Today there are various definitions given by local natural wine associations (mainly European countries), including the rules to be followed, a production pattern. In any case, their differentiation from organic, biodynamic and even conventional wines is distinct. In view of the implementation of the European Common Agricultural Policy 2023-2027 in relation to the labeling of wines is important to study the future of natural wines production.

Natural versus conventional production of Spanish white wines: an exploratory study.

Natural wine (NW) lacks an official or agreed definition, but it can be generally described as a wine produced with organic or biodynamic grapes with minimal intervention in the cellar, and with minimal or no use of oenological additives. The present study aimed to test the hypotheses that self-defined NWs differ from conventional wines (CW) in their chemical composition and main sensory characteristics. The levels of conventional oenological parameters, turbidity, biogenic amines, ochratoxin A, ethyl carbamate, sulphites, chlorides, some metals, major, trace and Strecker aldehyde volatile compounds were determined in 28 wines, including natural and conventional Spanish commercial white wines. Wines were also sensory described following a labelled free sorting task. NWs presented higher pH, volatile acidity (VA) and turbidity values, and a more intense yellow colour, whereas they have a lower malic acid content compared to theor conventional counterparts. NWs presented lower levels of total sulphur dioxide but significantly higher levels of biogenic amine putrescine, although both compounds are within the legal limits in all cases. None of the dimensions of the similarity space discriminated NWs from CWs. However, 70% of the NWs were grouped on the basis of various aromatic defects related to their higher content in 4-ethylphenols and VA. The remaining 30% were not differentiated from their conventional counterparts. It could be confirmed that NW can be globally differentiated from CW with respect to to their chemical and their sensory profiles, whereas the content in toxicants was not significantly different, with the exception of total sulphur dioxide and putrescine levels. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Capturing the fungal community associated with conventional and organic Trebbiano Abruzzese grapes and its influence on wine characteristics

In this study, the influence of conventional and organic managements on Vitis vinifera cv. Trebbiano Abruzzese on fungal community was investigated. Moreover, spontaneous vinifications were performed, and wines were characterized for some oenological parameters and aroma profiles. A core of 8 genera was detected (Zygosaccharomyces spp., Cladosporium spp., Botrytis spp., Hanseniaspora spp., Pichia spp., Alternaria spp., Candida spp., Aureobasidium spp.), while some genera were unique for each grape sample. Saccharomyces spp. and Mucor spp. were present only on conventional grapes, while Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. only on organic ones. At the species level Aureobasidium pullulans, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Pichia terricola dominated in both samples with varying abundance depending on the vineyard management. The fermentation performed with conventional grapes resulted in a faster rate than that performed with organic ones. No significative differences were observed for the oenological parameters analyzed with the only exception of ethanol content which was higher in conventional wines than in organic ones: 11.57 ± 0.10 g/L and 10.51 ± 0.09 g/L, respectively. Conventional wines were characterized by the presence of aldehydes, while organic ones by terpenes and β-damascenone. The obtained results suggested an effect of vineyard practices on grape fungal community which could in turn influence some characteristics of Trebbiano d’Abruzzo wines.

Characteristics of dealcoholized and partially dealcoholized wines on company websites and their influence on the price

The market for beverages obtained from dealcoholization of wine has grown from $7.8 billion in 2018 to $10 billion in 2022 in ten key markets; IWSR forecasts that no- and low-alcohol products’ volume will grow by +8% yearly between 2022 and 2025. Considering the segment of non-alcoholic wine, its demand is expected to surge at a CAGR of 10% from 2023 to 2033 (2022 Report from Fact.MR). Companies have the opportunity to pursue product differentiation through the wide heterogeneity of attributes that can be communicated through the website. The purpose of this study is to examine the offerings of companies producing fully or partially dealcoholized wines, through the statistical analysis of data relating to the product attributes communicated by the websites. The data were collected considering a sample of 360 wines, fully or partially de-alcoholized, presented on 43 corporate websites, with reference to the following variables: company location, still/sparkling, color, grape origin, grape variety, container capacity, packaging material, alcohol content, alcohol removal technique, retail prices, awards/recognitions, certifications, production of conventional wines, production of other alcoholic beverages, places (virtual and physical) of purchase and presence on social media. The collected data fed into a database that was used to perform statistical analyses related to the variables considered, for each of which the relationship with product prices was considered.

Technological Characteristic of Cabernet Sauvignon Wine Produced from Organically Grown Grapes

The opportunities for organic growing of the Cabernet Sauvignon variety in the region of the town of Pleven, Central Northern Bulgaria, were studied during the period 2017-2020. Conventional and organic plant protection measures against the diseases downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) and powdery mildew (Oidium tuckeri) were undertaken in the experimental plantations. In the organic cultivation of the variety, the products Funguran OH 50 WP and Thiovit Jet 80 WG were used, with seven treatments carried out annually. In the conventional cultivation, five or six combined treatments were applied. In the period of technological maturity, a minor attack of downy mildew and powdery mildew was found on the foliage and the clusters in both variants. The damage index from both diseases was higher in the organic production, but the differences found did not have a significant impact on the quality of the grape harvest. In the organic grape-growing, the amount of the input elemental Cu was strictly monitored. A technological characteristic of the Cabernet Sauvignon wines obtained from both growing variants was made. The difference in the main indicators of the grapes chemical composition was insignificant. The average rate of sugars, total acidity and glucoacidimetric index was similar. No significant differences were observed in the ratios of most indicators of the wines’ chemical composition. The contents of alcohol, sugars, total acidity and extract in the samples of both variants were identical. More differences stood out relating the total phenolic compounds, anthocyanins and colour intensity, as their rates were higher in the conventional wines. Due to their better taste and color features, these samples had higher tasting scores and were superior in their organoleptic qualities compared to the organic wines.

When health-related claims impact environmental demand: Results of experimental auctions with Bordeaux wine consumers

According to the latest studies, the demand for organic food is more frequently based on individual health expectations than on environmental considerations. As organic certification is typically based on the latter, one might be concerned about the impact of potentially competing health and environmental claims on consumer choices, especially as new health-related allegations arise. We use a specific situation to examine this issue, that of wine, a product currently classified as harmful, but for which health considerations are nonetheless made on wine markets, in particular via new “no-added-sulfites” labels. We created an experimental market, based on a tasting of Bordeaux wines specifically produced for this purpose. This market took place on two occasions (with 204 then 212 different consumers), with a two-year interval to allow for the impact of different production methods on product ageing. We highlight the importance of health guarantees when consumers make their choices, especially within the organic wine-buyer niche. Surprisingly, we show that this niche group penalizes the presence of sulfites in organic wines more than in conventional wines. We therefore argue that organic certification might be threatened by the increasingly generalized labeling of ingredients and practices, unveiling the frequently unknown uses authorized by organic certification. (JEL C91, L15, Q11, D44).

Differences in the levels of sulphites and pesticide residues in soils and wines and under organic and conventional production methods

The surface and output of organic agriculture is growing steadily in recent years, being generally seen as a healthier, safer and more sustainable alternative to conventional agriculture. Comparisons between organic and conventional products are nonetheless scarce in the literature, especially in the case of wine. The aim of this study was to compare sulphite content and pesticide residues in both soils and wines under organic and conventional production. Fourteen samples of organic and conventional wines and vineyard soils were collected in pairs for each of the seven wine-producing islands of the Canary Islands. A QuEChERS-based method was employed to detect 218 pesticides and 49 POPs. Sulphites were measured by potentiometric titration with a double electrode. On average, higher levels of sulphites were found in conventional wines. Similarly, conventional wines presented higher numbers and concentrations of pesticide residues both in soils and wines than their organic counterparts. The overall pesticide concentrations in our sample was 4.2 µg/kg. Conventional wines presented a considerably higher average concentration than organic wines (8.2 against 0.25 µg/kg). In turn, concentrations in conventional soils averaged 8.7 against 2.8 µg/kg in organic soils, a 68.19 % lower residue concentration. The analytes most commonly found were PCB 28, p,p′-DDE, tebuconazole and the metabolite 4,4′-dichlorobenzophenone in soils and mefenoxam, tebuconazole, fluopyram and boscalid in wines. No single wine exceeded the 10 % of the MRLs established by the European Union for wine grapes. However, the presence of low levels of pesticides in organic wines should be monitored.

Impact of vineyard management on grape fungal community and Montepulciano d’Abruzzo wine quality

In this study the effect of farming practices on the diversity of grape fungal community of Vitis vinifera L. cultivar Montepulciano and the microbial metabolic activity was investigated. Small-scale vinifications were performed and wines were characterized. Agronomic management system affected the fungal community composition. Hanseniaspora, Areobasidium and Botrytis genera represented 30%, 20% and 10% of the total reads in all samples. A. pullulans, and Cladosprium cladosporioides mainly occurred on organic and biodynamic grapes. Saccharomyces and Pseudopithomyces genera were present only on organic or biodynamic grapes, respectively. The agronomic managements also influenced the potential functionality of microbial community. In fact, the metabolic function was increased in organic and biodynamic grapes. Polymers were used only by organic and biodynamic microbial communities, which also showed the highest values of Shannon’s diversity index, and substrate richness. However, no significative differences were observed for the oenological parameters analyzed, with the only exception of the content of sugars which were higher on conventional grapes. The fermentation profiles showed that conventional wines had a lower residual sugars content, and a higher amount of alcohol. The differences observed in the volatile composition of the wines were both quantitative and qualitative. Conventional wines showed a lower content of esters, and a higher concentration of alcohols than organic and biodynamic ones. Biodynamic wines were characterized by the highest content of organic acids. The obtained results revealed that farming practices shape the fungal community influencing wine traits linking the wine with the viti-vinicultural area of origin.

Environmental Impacts of Organic and Biodynamic Wine Produced in Northeast Italy

Increasing awareness of sustainability in the agri-food sector is leading to a gradual transition toward lower-impact farming systems, such as organic and biodynamic farming. The environmental performance of organic wines has largely been compared to that of conventional wines, and few researchers have investigated the differences between organic and biodynamic wine production from an environmental point of view. Therefore, in this study, the environmental profiles of two organic and two biodynamic wines produced in two areas in Northeast Italy were assessed by performing a “cradle-to-gate” analysis according to the life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Results were used both to compare organic and biodynamic vitiviniculture and to draw overall conclusions on the environmental performance of each of the analyzed wines in order to identify environmental hotspots and provide recommendations to stakeholders. Production of the glass bottles was identified as the main source of environmental burden in all four systems, followed either by the production and use of fertilizers and pesticides, or the use of agricultural machinery. Results also showed that biodynamic wines seem to be responsible for lesser environmental impacts than organic ones.

Assessment of Physicochemical, Macro- and Microelements, Heavy Metals, and Related Human Health Risk from Organically, Conventionally, and Homemade Romanian Wines

From the consumers’ perspective, organic and homemade products have become more attractive than conventional ones. However, scientific data regarding the characteristics, properties, and composition of these products are scarce. This study assessed the elemental composition of organic, conventional, and homemade Romanian wines. The physicochemical composition, SO2 (free and total) and total concentration of macroelements, microelements, and heavy metals from nine wine regions containing 165 samples of white (38 organic/70 conventional/57 homemade), 67 red (22/31/14) and 7 rosé (2/2/3) wines were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Dietary intake and target hazard quotient were also evaluated. The phytochemical and elemental compositions of the wine samples varied across regions and wine types. The highest levels of Ca, K, Fe and Al were detected in conventional wines, while homemade wines recorded high concentrations of Na, Mg, V, Ba and Rb. In the case of the rosé wine samples, the levels of trace elements and heavy metals were below the admissible limit. The estimated daily intake of a glass of wine provided less than 0.5% of the tolerable daily intake of the analyzed elements. No health concerns were identified. All wine samples can be safely consumed, regardless of the culture system used for production, and homemade wines are not of a lower quality than organic or conventional wines.

Consumer acceptance of fungus-resistant grape wines: Evidence from Italy, the UK, and the USA.

While there is evidence of consumers’ interest in wine sustainability, acceptance of innovations in wine production is not guaranteed. The current study addresses this issue by analyzing consumers’ acceptance of fungus-resistant grape (FRG) wines, a sustainable innovation that can substantially reduce the need for chemical inputs in viticulture. To do so, by means of an online survey including large samples of regular wine drinkers in Italy (N = 752), the UK (N = 858) and the USA (N = 856), the study compares individuals’ preferences for conventional wines with preferences for FRG wines. The study also explores whether FRG wine acceptance is influenced by informal or formal purchase occasion, by different types of information regarding the product, and by individual attitudinal characteristics. The findings show a general acceptance of FRG wines among consumers. In particular, consumers’ preferences for FRG wines on formal occasions are not significantly different from their preferences for conventional wine, whereas on informal occasions, consumers prefer FRG wines over conventional wines. Regarding the impact of information on participant choice, participants informed about the potential effects of FRG on sensory wine characteristics had lower preferences for FRG wines than those who read an information script regarding crop biodiversity. Last, individuals’ sustainability concerns and food technology neophobia had positive and negative influences on FRG acceptance, respectively. Overall, this research provides wineries, nurseries and policy-makers with important insights concerning the market potential of FRG wines in three key markets.

Pesticide residues, copper and biogenic amines in conventional and organic wines

The aim of this study was to compare pesticide residues, copper and biogenic amines concentrations in conventional and organic wines. For each type of wine production, 20 samples were collected. We used two multi-residual methods employing GC/MS (92 pesticides) and LC/MS/MS (112 pesticides) detection. Copper residues and biogenic amines were measured by standard FAAS and HPLC methods. We confirmed lower numbers and concentrations of pesticide residues in organic wines. The most frequently determined pesticide was dimethomorph, followed by boscalid, fenhexamid, metalaxyl + metalaxyl-M, iprovalicarb and pyrimethanil. Also, higher levels of copper were observed in the groups of conventional wines. For biogenic amines, we could not confirm a clear trend. It is unacceptable that some pesticide residues in organic wines were detected, which are not allowed in this type of production. Nevertheless, we can confirm the trend of added value in organic wine production in terms of reducing pesticide residues and copper in bottled wines. - Added value is in organic wine production in terms of pesticides and copper reduction. - Producers should avoid some commonly found pesticide residues in the last sprays. - No significant difference in the occurrence and concentrations of biogenic amines between both groups of wines.

Elemental composition, rare earths and minority elements in organic and conventional wines from volcanic areas: The Canary Islands (Spain)

The organic wine market is rapidly growing worldwide, both in terms of production and consumption. However, the scientific literature is not conclusive regarding differences in the elemental composition of wines according to their production method, including both major and trace elements. Minerals can be present in wine as a result of both anthropogenic and environmental factors. To date, this has not been evaluated in volcanic contexts, neither has the emergent issue of rare earths and other minority elements as potential sources of food contamination. This study using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analyses organic and conventional wines produced in the Canary Islands (Spain), an archipelago of volcanic origin, to compare their content of 49 elements, including rare earths and minority elements. Our results showed that organic wines presented lower potential toxic element content on average than their conventional counterparts, but differences were not significant. Geographical origin of the wine samples (island) was the only significant variable differentiating wine samples by their composition profiles. By comparing our data with the literature, no agreement was found in terms of differences between organic and conventionally-produced wines. This confirms that other factors prevail over elemental composition when considering differences between wine production methods. Regarding the toxicological profile of the wines, five samples (three organic and two conventional) exceeded the maximum limits established by international legislation. This highlights the need for stricter analytical monitoring in the Canary Islands, with a particular focus on Cu and Ni concentration, and potentially in other volcanic areas.

Role of information in consumers' preferences for eco-sustainable genetic improvements in plant breeding.

Consumers’ preferences for products derived from genetic improvements and innovations in plant breeding are often conditioned by technophobia and negative public imaginaries. The current study addresses this issue by analyzing consumers’ monetary preferences for a win-win innovation (generating gains for both private actors and the community) in the viticulture sector, namely fungus resistant grapes (FRG). The use of these grapes reduces the quantity of chemical inputs applied to vineyards, simultaneously improving firms’ economic performance. This study aimed to assess whether consumers prefer wines originating from FRG varieties to conventional wines. In particular, through an experimental online survey involving 627 Italian regular wine drinkers, the study compares individuals’ willingness to pay (WTP) for conventional wines with the WTP for two FRG wines produced with two different techniques: horticultural hybridization and genome editing. The study also assesses the potential effect of polarized media coverage on preferences by testing, in a between-subjects experimental design, two diverging (positive/negative) information scenarios, and the core drivers of these preferences. The findings suggest that respondents express a premium price for horticultural FRG wines compared to conventional wines (+9.14%) and a strong discount for genome edited FRG wines (–21.13%). The results also reveal that negative information reduces consumers’ WTP for horticultural FRG wines, while positive information increases their WTP for genome edited FRG wines. Last, the study highlights that individuals concerned with food sustainability issues and knowledgeable about wine are more likely to accept both FRG typologies. Overall, the study confirms the crucial role of appropriate information for market acceptance of innovations based on plant genetics to foster the adoption of sustainable pest-reducing practices in wine production.

A driving simulation study on the effects of different wine types on the performance of young drivers

BackgroundAlcohol consumption is responsible for a significant number of road fatalities. To contrast this phenomenon, a more responsible attitude to the wine consumption, especially among young, inexperienced drivers prone to risky behaviour on the road must be promoted. MethodThis is a simplified single-blind, placebo-controlled experiment aimed at evaluating 44 young drivers monitored during a driving simulation following the consumption of natural and conventional wines, with a reference blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.5 g/l. Two hypotheses are tested: (1) the legal consumption of wine has no significant impact on young drivers’ performance in both ordinary and unusual road events; (2) natural and conventional wines are expected to produce negligible and acceptable impairments in young drivers the same BAC. Two reference groups (BAC = 0 g/l), one a placebo-controlled group with drivers treated with a dealcoholized wine, were included. Results and ConclusionsSignificant differences between the groups in terms of perception and reaction times (PRT) to visual and auditory stimuli, and to speeding were observed, with young drivers treated with conventional wine displaying more aggressive behaviours. In contrast, participants treated with natural wine showed PRT which were not significantly different from those belonging to control groups. The gaze attention levels of wine treated drivers were found to be dose dependant, with young drivers of the two control groups and those of the treated ones with BAC < 0.3 g/l able to focus on wider area ahead and, thereby, collect more information from the road environment.

Study of the impact of vine cultivation technology on the Feteasca Neagra wine phenolic composition and antioxidant properties.

In this work a comparative assessment was performed on individual and total polyphenols and biochemical properties of some Feteasca Neagra red wines obtained from grapes cultivated with different farming technologies (organic vs. conventional). The effect of a 30% cluster thinning treatment in both organic and conventional vineyard, compared to control plots with no thinning, was also monitored. The wines were obtained during two vintages, one with more favourable climatic conditions and one less favourable, in the period 2010-2019. Our results indicate that by applying a 30% cluster thinning treatment in the vineyard it is possible to increase the concentration of total and individual polyphenols of the resulted Feteasca Neagra wines. Furthermore, the differences observed between the phenolic profiles of wines from conventionally and organically produced grapes showed that organic Feteasca Neagra wines have higher phenolic compounds concentrations and antioxidant properties, with some important individual phenols accumulating in larger quantities than in the case of conventional wines. The beneficial effect of the organic cultivation is more evident in years characterised by less favourable climatic conditions. The statistical analysis tools applied to the analytical data allowed a good discrimination of experimental wine variants according to the vine cultivation technology (organic vs. conventional, with and without cluster thinning) and vintage. Thus, the results indicated that the applied cultivation technologies, especially when both organic cultivation and cluster thinning are combined, can greatly improve the polyphenolic content of Feteasca Neagra wines. The absolute value of the increase in polyphenol concentration was higher in favourable years, but the relative increase, in percentages, as compared to control wines, was higher in less favourable years. The combination of both viticultural practices may be thus exploited in order to obtain wines with higher polyphenolic content, which leads to better structure, better ageing potential, enhanced nutritional and antioxidant properties.