Control Packets Research Articles

Multi‐Source Time Synchronization in IEEE Std 802.15.4‐2015 TSCH Networks

IEEE std 802.15.4‐2015 Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) extends and replaces multiple proprietary industrial standards to support ultra‐reliable and ultra‐low power operation in Industrial Internet of Things. Under TSCH, all devices must remain continuously synchronized with their time source neighbor. To do so, the nodes either periodically exchange control packets or data packets to compensate for clock drift. However, single time source neighbor scheme endangers de‐synchronization in the wireless network. In this letter, we propose using multiple time source parents to improve the synchronization of the network.

Multi-Route AODV Protocol in Association with Overhearing Concept for Routes Selection Based on Unified Norm Composed of the Steadiness, Traffic Load and Energy Coefficients for Nodes

Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) considered as one of the major important neoteric directions of wireless networks that allows movable devices to communicate with each other’s at any time anywhere. The main distinctive feature of MANET is its operation does not depend on any type of centralized administration. Due to non-truancy of localized management, devices motion and MANET resources scarcity, routing design mechanisms becoming essential problem that faces MANET until yet. Therefore, this article focuses on performance enhancement for one of most notorious interactive routing schemes that is called Ad-hoc On Demand distance Vector (AODV). Where performance refinement for AODV has been achieved via modification of route creation and maintenance processes, conjunction with overhear concept and getting multiple routes for each source - destination pair, in such a way that reduce energy consumption of nodes, avoiding unnecessary control packets, getting a more stable paths among communication nodes and fulfillment of a balanced traffic load among nodes, leading to elongate life time of nodes. Hence, prolonging life time of network. The proposed algorithm is called, Steadiness, balanced Load and Energy efficient for Multiple paths of Overhear AODV (SLE-MOAODV), where route election depending on unified metric called efficiency factor of node (NEF), which composed of parameters of stabilization, traffic load and energy for node. Functioning appraisal and comparison among proposed algorithm (SLE-MOAODV) and original AODV was carried out utilizing network simulator NS2. Outcome of simulation proved that functioning of proposed scheme outdo the original AODV with regard to: ratio of successfully delivered packets, retard time, routing cost and spent energy of nodes.

A Responsibility-based Transport Control for Named Data Networking

Transport Control in Named Data Networking (NDN) architecture is a challenging task. The lack of end-to-end communications in this architecture makes traditional, timeout-driven transport control schemes inefficient and wasteful. Hop-by-hop transport control is an alternative solution to tackle this problem that because of the stateful forwarding plan of NDN can be applied more easily than the IP networks. Most existing solutions in this direction assume known link bandwidths and Data packet sizes or require a loop-free multipath forwarding strategy to work well, but these assumptions do not always hold true and there exist no a loop-free multipath forwarding strategy among the existing forwarding strategies for NDN. In this paper, a Responsibility-based Transport Control (RTC) protocol for NDN is proposed. This protocol does not make strong assumptions about the network and avoids looping paths by applying a window-based rate control mechanism and a capacity-aware, multipath forwarding strategy in each face. In RTC, routers maintain a congestion window in each face and decide on accepting or refusing to take responsibility for forwarding of a newly received Interest packet through exchanging three new control packets. These control packets provide reliable information for managing the congestion windows and capacity-aware traffic splitting in routers. They also enable diverse deployment scenarios for NDN such as IP-overly and wireless links. The RTC is implemented in ndnSIM and its capability in managing congestion, achieving high throughput and providing flow fairness are demonstrated through extensive simulations.

An energy efficient distributed queuing random access (EE-DQRA) MAC protocol for wireless body sensor networks

In wireless sensor networks, a significant amount of energy is consumed by the sensor nodes during data packet transmission and reception. An IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol is not able to completely satisfy all the requirements of wireless body sensor networks (BSNs) in a healthcare environment. Hence there is a demand for the design of a new scalable and energy saving MAC protocols. In this paper the challenging healthcare requirements are considered and based upon these requirements, an energy efficient distributed queuing random access (EE-DQRA) MAC protocol is proposed for BSN scenarios which utilizes the concept of distributed queuing for enhanced radio channel utilization. The theoretical analysis of energy efficient EE-DQRA MAC protocol is being carried out systematically considering the limitations of IEEE 802.15.4 and DQ-MAC protocol. Further, EE-DQRA performance is validated with IEEE 802.15.4 system parameters using computer simulations. The effect of relative traffic load and payload length on the energy consumption, delay and throughput are also analyzed. The simulation results shows that the proposed EE-DQRA MAC with M/M/K queuing has better energy performance than the existing DQ-MAC and IEEE 802.15.4 MAC in BSN scenarios due to collisionless transmission in the data transmission queuing (DTQ) module while keeping the control packet overhead smaller in collision resolution queuing (CRQ) module. It is also evident that EE-DQRA requires a minimum delay in comparison to IEEE802.15.4 and DQ-MAC, due to overhead minimization and M/M/K queuing utilization in DTQ system.

An Efficient Reservation-Based MAC Protocol for Multi-Priority Traffic in Slotted Multi-Channel Distributed Cognitive Radio Networks

Cognitive radio network (CRN) is developed to improve the scarce but under-utilized wireless spectrum due to rapidly developing wireless networks. This paper proposes a reservation-based MAC protocol for traffic having multiple classes of priorities in CRN. One channel called control channel is used for contention resolution between secondary users (SUs). In this protocol, an SU having data packets with different class of priorities transmits its control packet containing the priority value through the control channel. The order of access to primary channels is determined based on the priority of the data packet and the position of the non-colliding control packet. The access order determines the idle primary channel that an SU uses to transmit its data packet. In this protocol, there is no performance degradation either from SUs choosing a busy primary channel or multiple SUs choosing the same idle primary channel. Moreover, even though the SU cannot transmit its data packet because there is no idle primary channel that the SU can utilize, it can re-transmit its control packet without having concern over additional collision. Multi-state Markov chain is used to analyze the throughput and performance of the proposed protocol and the analytical results show that higher priority traffic can be transmitted first ahead of the lower priority traffic. Notwithstanding the above, the maximum sum of the throughput of SUs with different classes of priorities is almost equal to the available capacity, and therefore the proposed protocol can take advantage of almost all of the available portion of primary channels.

Enhancing the Performance of Service Discovery Protocol Using Minimum Spanning Tree

In a wireless sensor network, aggregation is either done to avoid the redundant transmissions. In service provisioning, the control packets sent for service advertisement and discovery contribute significantly to the network traffic. In this paper, it is proposed to aggregate the similar control packets sent from different sources to a common destination along with minimum spanning tree, which is constructed for service provisioning. The mobile agent migration schemes used in the literature have got overhead in finding the migration path. Therefore, the proposed approach uses the spanning tree constructed for service discovery, as the migration path for the mobile agents. It is found from the investigation that the aggregation scheme has reduced average energy spent by 33%, control overhead by 12% and average discovery delay by 25%. Use of mobile agents has reduced the average discovery delay by 22%, control overhead by 19% and service discovery success ratio by 4%.

An Adaptive Connection-Establishment Timeout Configuration Method for Bluetooth MANETs in Control Packet Loss Environments

Bluetooth MANETs, which consist of Bluetooth-enabled terminals, are a prospective methodology for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Since Bluetooth is a connection-oriented and a low-power-consumption communication method, terminals must execute time-consuming connection establishment procedures in advance. We have to solve the following two problems for Bluetooth MANETs: (1) since terminals move within fields, terminals must establish their connection within a limited time. In addition, (2) since Bluetooth has a shorter range than other technologies, established connections are easily disrupted. In order to solve problem (1), a low-latency connection establishment method has been proposed. However, there is no countermeasure for problem (2). Therefore, the possibility of rapid re-establishment for connections ought to be investigated. In this paper, we have proposed a new adaptive connection-establishment timeout configuration method for environments with control packet loss. Our proposed method employs an adjustment mechanism for control packet loss. We have also implemented our proposed method on Raspberry Pi in order to evaluate our proposed method. To design our proposed method, we have conducted preliminary experiments to investigate the effects on varied connection-establishment timeouts. As a result, we have found that the minimum connection-establishment timeout is 2 seconds. At the same time, we have found that connection establishment failure rates increased as connection-establishment timeouts became shorter than 2 seconds. Especially, when connection-establishment timeouts were less than 2 seconds, the latency of the connection establishment became extremely long. This is due to the presence of a race condition between the processing time of control packets and the connection-establishment timeouts. From these results, we have set an adjustable interval of connection-establishment timeouts between 2 to 5 seconds. 5 seconds is the native default value of Bluetooth’s connection-establishment time-out. We have also conducted experiments of our proposed method in varying packet loss rate scenarios, and have confirmed the effectiveness of our proposed method.

MAC Protocol for Underwater Sensor Networks Using EM Wave With TDMA Based Control Channel

Underwater communication (UWC) growing over the past few decades is the major tool for exploring the vast underwater space. Research and development of UWC networks are dominantly acoustic (Ac) wave based due to its long coverage capability. However, the demand of low latency and high throughput applications, and the emergence of short-range UWCs in modern times has drawn attention towards the development of electromagnetic (EM) wave based underwater sensor networks (UWSNs). In light of this, this paper proposes novel medium access control (MAC) protocols by integrating EM-based communications in UWSNs. Proposed protocols use one TDMA-based control channel and one or multiple data channel(s) for control and data packet transmissions respectively. The control channel uses EM wave, while the data channels use either EM or Ac wave for communications. Proposed MAC protocols are developed considering both protocol interference model and physical interference model by taking both propagation delay and underwater channel impairments into account. Performance of the protocols is evaluated through extensive simulations in terms of throughput, packet collision rate, waiting time, energy requirement and network coverage. Impact of system parameters including offered load, network size, data packet size, control packet power, water conductivity and channel bandwidth are analyzed thoroughly. A comprehensive feasibility study by comparing the proposed MAC protocols with the traditional protocols as well as with the full Ac-wave based counterpart is also presented for further validations.

Intelligent Detection of Black Hole Attacks for Secure Communication in Autonomous and Connected Vehicles

Detection of Black Hole attacks is one of the most challenging and critical routing security issues in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and autonomous and connected vehicles (ACVs). Malicious vehicles or nodes may exist in the cyber-physical path on which the data and control packets have to be routed converting a secure and reliable route into a compromised one. However, instead of passing packets to a neighbouring node, malicious nodes bypass them and drop any data packets that could contain emergency alarms. We introduce an intelligent black hole attack detection scheme (IDBA) tailored to ACV. We consider four key parameters in the design of the scheme, namely, Hop Count, Destination Sequence Number, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), and End-to-End delay (E2E). We tested the performance of our IDBA against AODV with Black Hole (BAODV), Intrusion Detection System (IdsAODV), and EAODV algorithms. Extensive simulation results show that our IDBA outperforms existing approaches in terms of PDR, E2E, Routing Overhead, Packet Loss Rate, and Throughput.

Enhancing the performance of service discovery protocol using minimum spanning tree

In a wireless sensor network, aggregation is either done to avoid the redundant transmissions. In service provisioning, the control packets sent for service advertisement and discovery contribute significantly to the network traffic. In this paper, it is proposed to aggregate the similar control packets sent from different sources to a common destination along with minimum spanning tree, which is constructed for service provisioning. The mobile agent migration schemes used in the literature have got overhead in finding the migration path. Therefore, the proposed approach uses the spanning tree constructed for service discovery, as the migration path for the mobile agents. It is found from the investigation that the aggregation scheme has reduced average energy spent by 33%, control overhead by 12% and average discovery delay by 25%. Use of mobile agents has reduced the average discovery delay by 22%, control overhead by 19% and service discovery success ratio by 4%.

Impacts of Mobility Models on RPL-Based Mobile IoT Infrastructures: An Evaluative Comparison and Survey

With the widespread use of IoT applications and the increasing trend in the number of connected smart devices, the concept of routing has become very challenging. In this regard, the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy Networks (PRL) was standardized to be adopted in IoT networks. Nevertheless, while mobile IoT domains have gained significant popularity in recent years, since RPL was fundamentally designed for stationary IoT applications, it could not well adjust with the dynamic fluctuations in mobile applications. While there have been a number of studies on tuning RPL for mobile IoT applications, but still there is a high demand for more efforts to reach a standard version of this protocol for such applications. Accordingly, in this survey, we try to conduct a precise and comprehensive experimental study on the impact of various mobility models on the performance of a mobility-aware RPL to help this process. In this regard, a complete and scrutinized survey of the mobility models has been presented to be able to fairly justify and compare the outcome results. A significant set of evaluations has been conducted via precise IoT simulation tools to monitor and compare the performance of the network and its IoT devices in mobile RPL-based IoT applications under the presence of different mobility models from different perspectives including power consumption, reliability, latency, and control packet overhead. This will pave the way for researchers in both academia and industry to be able to compare the impact of various mobility models on the functionality of RPL, and consequently to design and implement application-specific and even a standard version of this protocol, which is capable of being employed in mobile IoT applications.

Graph Kernel Based Clustering Algorithm in MANETs

The mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a kind of dynamic, easy to construct and universal network, which has been widely concerned by a large number of researchers. Graph theory provides an effective theoretical tool for MANETs modeling and analysis. Clustering is one of the most effective methods to measure network performance with different attributes. This paper gives the basic concept of graph kernel and discusses the principle of optimizing graph kernel and multi-graph kernel. In this paper, we propose a Graph Kernel based Clustering Algorithm in MANETs (GKCA). The GKCA algorithm gives the basic concept of graph kernel, discusses the principle of optimizing graph kernel and multi-graph kernel, and proposes the basic principle based on $d$ -hop graph kernel. GKCA algorithm uses shortest path (SP) to connect different cluster head nodes for packet transmission. The performance of GKCA algorithm, such as the control packets ratio, packets loss ratio, and average end-to-end delay are experimentally evaluated using network simulation (NS2) software. Experimental analysis shows that the proposed approach is efficient, and its performance advantage in dynamic mobile networks is promising.

Energy-efficient Load-balanced RPL routing protocol for Internet of Things (IoTs) Networks

This article proposed energy-efficient load-balanced RPL (EL-RPL) routing protocol for IoTs networks. In this protocol, a parent selection algorithm is proposed. It selects parent in parent list to be the next hop node toward destination node in networks based on an objective function that combines between the highest remaining energy and the total number of received packets by the parent. This can balance the load on all parents in the parents' list. Besides, the EL-RPL protocol improves DODAG construction by preventing DIO packets transmission to the nodes with the lower ranks. This will lead to save energy and hence enhance the networks' lifetime. Many experiments were performed using the OMNeT++ network simulator to evaluate the efficiency of EL-RPL routing protocol. In comparison with some existing protocol, the results ensure that the proposed EL-RPL protocol can efficiently save energy, decrease the control packets and improve the lifetime of the IoTs networks.

Mitigation of DIS flooding attacks in RPL‐based 6LoWPAN networks

AbstractThe IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low‐Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is the de facto routing protocol for IPv6‐based Low‐Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN). In RPL protocol, DODAG Information Solicitation (DIS) messages are sent by the node to join the network. A malicious node can exploit this mechanism to send illegitimate DIS messages to the neighbor nodes to perform a DIS flooding attack. In this research paper, it is observed that the DIS flooding attack increases the control packet overhead of the network, which significantly degrades the network's performance. This further increases the power consumption of the nodes in the network. To address this problem, a mitigation scheme named Secure‐RPL is proposed. The proposed scheme mitigates significantly the effects of DIS flooding attack on the network's performance. The effectiveness of the proposed Secure‐RPL scheme is compared with standard RPL protocol. The experimental results show that Secure‐RPL detects and mitigates DIS flooding attack quickly and efficiently in both static and dynamic network scenarios, without adding any significant overhead to the nodes.

LNR-PP: Leaf Node Count and RSSI Based Parent Prediction Scheme to Support QoS in Presence of Mobility in 6LoWPAN

6LoWPAN network consists of embedded devices and sensors that senses environmental data and passes it to a root called as a 6LBR (6LoWPAN Border Router) which further transfers it to an Internet server for aggregation and processing. Earlier definition of 6LoWPAN consists of devices which are static with constrained resources such as computing power, memory, battery power and communication bandwidth. Recent additions such as mobile devices which are part of the 6LoWPAN network often cause frequent topology changes and disconnections, leading to degraded performance of the network. Handover delay, data loss rate, number of control messages, energy utilization are some of the performance metrics that has been focused and improved by recent works in the literature. But the proposed approaches work well when the number of mobile nodes and mobility rate are moderate. We identify the issues that arise in the 6LoWPAN RPL based network due to higher number of mobile nodes and higher mobility rate which causes problems like delay in data transmission and degraded parent node performance. In this paper we study, analyse and propose modifications in the popular protocols that support mobility in 6LoWPAN such as EC-MRPL. We propose a best-effort scheme called LNR-PP (Leaf node count and RSSI based Parent Prediction) to identify affected Static Nodes (SN) to whom large number of Mobile Nodes (MN) are connected. We call this scheme as a best effort since the parent prediction depends upon the number of neighbours available within the reach of MN in mobility. LNR-PP performs balanced leaf node (Mobile Node) allocation to SN in an effort to minimize the number of RPL control message packets, delay in forwarding data from the MN and power required to transmit control and data packets through SN. This enables the mobile nodes (MN) to communicate with DODAG-ROOT with guaranteed QoS measures under high mobility scenario. We developed a mathematical model to realize the benefits of the proposed scheme which can be incorporated into EC-MRPL and simulated with sample network parameters in MATLAB. The results obtained through simulation shows a significant improvement in term of number of RPL control message packets such as DIS and DIO, power requirement to transfer control and data packets through SN and delay encountered by SN while forwarding large volume of data from MN.

Distributed and Localized Hub-Based Hierarchical Information Transmission Control in Large-Scale Wireless Cloud Networks

This paper proposes a virtual infrastructure-based hierarchical information transmission scheme consisting of two phases, macroscopic transmission and local transmission controls. The macroscopic transmission control builds a hub-node-based virtual infrastructure and then finds the optimal hub route that satisfies the stochastic end-to-end delay constraint. Each node determines whether it belongs to a hub node by itself in a distributed manner. The local transmission control builds a robust local path between hub nodes by using the synchronized redundancy concept; this minimizes the effects of transmission failure by reducing the control traffic overhead and time to reconfigure transmission paths without rediscovery of the transmission path from the source node. Simulations confirmed that, as the network size increased, the performance of the proposed transmission scheme increased in terms of packet delivery ratio and control packet overhead. The scheme can be applied to mobile ad hoc cloud computing systems based on self-organizing vehicular networks or drone networks as a key control.

Approximate solution to optimal linear quadratic Gaussian control over non-acknowledgment networks

This paper investigates the solution of the optimal linear quadratic Gaussian control (LQG) problem for systems with packet losses over non-acknowledgment networks. The acknowledgment refers to acknowledgment signals, which are sent by the actuator to notify the controller whether the control packets are successfully received or not. Systems without acknowledgment for packet losses are usually called user-diagram-protocol-like (UDP-like) systems. It is known that for general UDP-like systems, there is no analytical solution to the optimal LQG problem and the computational efforts of numerical solutions will exponentially grow with time. By using a moment-preserving Gaussian approximation approach, this paper develops an efficient algorithm to approximately estimate system states. Based on approximate state estimates, an analytical solution to the optimal LQG problem for general UDP-like systems is obtained by using a dynamic programming approach. It is an approximate solution, and it becomes an exact solution under special conditions. Some simulation examples are given to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods.

WSN and IoT based smart city model using the MQTT protocol

The Internet of things in integration with wireless sensor networks changed the world exponentially by connecting a huge number of devices and providing the ability to control them remotely and globally. This research work is emphasized on proposing the smart city model and implementation that model based on IoT using MQTT protocol. The comparison is done with HTTP protocol. HTTP is used for transferring the information using request and response model so require control packets overhead. To handle the limitation of HTTP, MQTT is proposed. It uses publish/subscribe model, reduces control packets overhead and suitable for IoT. It uses “Named based routing” and prevents IP address in IoT data transfer. The smart city model is proposed and developed using Network Simulation Software (Cisco Packet Tracer v7.2).Cisco introduces IoT and MQTT feature in version 7.1. Here Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol is used which gives fast and reliable performance for IoT devices. A network model is developed with multiple sensors and IoT Devices which acts as MQTT client. Here a data center is created which has multiple Servers (MQTT Broker). Using the MQTT broker all the IoT devices can be monitored by just logging in to the broker. A prototype model is implemented and tested in real time using Node MCU. The devices are remotely monitored from anywhere in the world which fulfill the requirement of smart city model. Future aspects include the integration of machine learning algorithms in the protocols developed for IoT for quick smart decisions in monitoring the critical applications.

Hierarchical Energy Efficient Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks and its Challenges

Wireless sensor network consists of various sensor nodes connected through wireless media. Sensor nodes are tiny devices having lesser energy capabilities. Sensor nodes are either ad-hoc or mobile in their environment. Wireless sensor network route of transmission media is discovered by routing protocols and responsible for secure communication between sensor nodes. Energy is a precious resource of sensor nodes, and the entire lifetime of WSNs is depending on the energy capability of the sensor nodes. The fundamental problem is how to organize topology of WSN for deployed sensor nodes with lesser power consumption as possible. Major problems in wireless sensor networks which consume extra energy are interference, control message overhead, packet delay, unnecessary transmission, and bandwidth utilization. Therefore, energy efficient techniques are needed to overcome these problems. Hierarchical routing is the best routing method for finding optimal path between sensor nodes which enhance the lifetime of the network. This paper focuses towards various hierarchical energy efficient routing in wireless sensor networks and analyzes various features of WSN that should consider during designing of routing protocols.

SIPAV-SDN: Source Internet Protocol Address Validation for Software Defined Network

SDN technology is becoming every day more popular and big data centers and organizational networks have started deploying for its advantages. Current development of SDN network relies on target host IP address of packet and OFSwitches ignores checking of source host IP. SDN has separated control planes and data planes and OpenFlow protocol enabled switches are used as packet forwarding devices. The SDN controller controls flow of data packet through forwarding devices and when these are turned on, do not have any control and defense. The devices are not able to handle packet arriving from connected host. In this case, data packets of hosts are sent to the controller forwarding device for inspection and control packet creation for data packet and setting up required matching entries in flow table of forwarding device for such type of data packets generated by the hosts. The attackers can generate packets with Spoofed source IP address and perform various types of attacks. In this research paper, we offer a scheme as Source IP Address Validation for Software Defined Network (SIPAV-SDN) to check packet’s source host IP address by binding source host IP Address and MAC address with switch port. It maintains a HostTable at Controller for verification of source host IP and MAC with switch port and only forwards the packets which have valid sources host IP address. We also simulated SIPAV-SDN with hybrid SDN network and experiment results have shown that it achieved 100% packet filtering accuracy for IP spoofed TCP, UDP and ICMP packet attacks. We used python programming language for RYU controller in Mininet network emulator.