Control Packet Overhead Research Articles

RPL*: An Explainable AI-based routing protocol for Internet of Mobile Things

The Internet of Mobile Things (IoMT) is an emerging paradigm of Internet of Things (IoT) with special focus on enabling mobility to the ‘things’. Several IoMT applications such as group of robots or drones performing collaborative search and rescue operation, identification of mines, warehouse management, goods delivery, etc can be considered as examples of IoMT systems. In the applications mentioned above, the nodes may send the information in a multi-hop manner to the root or coordinator node which may be static or mobile. While the Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is extensively utilized in static IoT networks, it encounters significant limitations in handling mobility and providing resilience against routing attacks in mobile IoT networks. In this work, we propose a modified RPL, RPL* which is robust to handling mobility in nodes and is resilient towards routing attacks. In RPL*, any deviation from the normal behaviors of the network are identified as anomalies using an unsupervised Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) strategy. In RPL*, we propose a novel mobility detection mechanism that will identify the mobility in the network in an energy efficient manner without incurring additional communication overhead. To maintain the connectivity with parent node, we propose a novel proactive connectivity management mechanism in RPL* which will ensure a smooth transition from one parent to another if required, thus avoiding the network partitioning due to mobility. The performance analysis of the system has demonstrated an improvement in packet delivery ratio of the mobile nodes by 40% due to the proposed RPL* when compared to RPL. Also, the proposed XAI strategy provided an F1-score of over 95% for the detection of sink hole and black hole attacks in the tested IoMT network scenarios. It was observed that RPL* improves the performance of the IoMT network when compared to RPL. However it may be noted that the mechanisms introduced to support mobility does not lead to a drop in PDR or increase in control packet overhead for static networks. Hence, RPL* can be considered as an alternative to RPL for IoT as well as IoMT networks.

A novel swarm intelligence‐based fuzzy logic in efficient connectivity of vehicles

SummaryA vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is a wireless network composed of a collection of mobility devices that link via a wireless channel without the need for permanent infrastructure or centralized administration. Multicasting is a method of sending data from a single node to multiple recipients at the same time. Because of its energizing network topology and constricted resources, a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) presents a number of issues. Because network execution measurements such as latency, bandwidth, throughput, and energy fluctuate so rapidly owing to node movement, these network properties in a wireless mobile ad hoc network are ambiguous. Because of the influence of these uncertainty issues, determining the top‐grade path from the originating node to a set of recipient nodes is challenging. In order to preserve network resources, we used a Swarm Intelligence‐based fuzzy logic strategy in this study that includes channel caliber factor and connection termination time to try to alleviate these uncertainty issues. This strategy integrates all of the network indicators available for the routes into an individual quantity named as fuzzy cost or cost of communication. The routes with the lowest fuzzy cost will be regarded optimum, and data will be delivered along this route from the originating point to a set of receivers. The simulation was carried out using NS‐3.38 and MATLAB, and the results reveal that the suggested protocol, HACOFLM, outperforms ODMRP, OFAODV, MAODV, and DFMCRP by means of packet delivery ratio, latency, control packet overhead, and throughput. DFMCRP outperforms MAODV by 3% to 6%, OFAODV by 13% to 19%, and ODMRP by 16% to 23%. According to HACOSMO, based on the number of vehicles and velocities, routing overhead is 7% to 10% less than DFMCRP, 9% to 13% less than MAODV, 17% to 29% less than OFAODV, and 22% to 36% less than ODMRP. It improvise throughput by 4% to 6% when contrasted to DFMCRP, 5% to 9% when contrasted to MAODV, 10% to 14% when contrasted to OFAODV, and 14% to 23% when contrasted to ODMRP.

An Energy-Efficient Multi-Channel Design for Distributed Wireless Sensor Networks

This article discusses the importance of designing an efficient medium access control (MAC) protocol for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to optimize energy consumption at the data link layer while transmitting high traffic applications. The proposed protocol, EE-MMAC, is an energy-efficient multichannel MAC that reduces energy consumption by minimizing idle listening, collisions, overhearing, and control packet overhead. EE-MMAC utilizes a directional antenna and periodically sleep technique in a multi-channel environment. Nodes exchange control packets on the control channel to choose a data channel and decide the beam direction of the flow. Simulation results show that EE-MMAC achieves significant energy gains (30% to 45% less than comparable IEEE 802.11 and MMAC) based on energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio, and throughput.

A Gaming and Trust-Model-Based Countermeasure for DIS Attack on 6TiSCH IoT Networks

The 6TiSCH communication architecture provides delay-bounded packet delivery, energy-efficient and reliable data-delivering communication in mission-critical Internet of Things (IoT) applications. It uses IETF’s 6TiSCH minimal configuration (6TiSCH-MC) standard for resource allocation during network formation and routing using Routing Protocol for Low power and Lossy network (RPL) as routing protocol. In RPL, the DODAG Information Solicitation (DIS) control packet is used to solicit routing information from the existing networks. However, it is observed that malicious transmission of this DIS packet can severely affect the 6TiSCH networks in terms of nodes’ network joining time and energy consumption. Therefore, designing countermeasures of DIS attack in 6TiSCH network has become critically important. Additionally, the existing works neither considered all the possible parameters together for detecting DIS attack nor energy efficient, and create control packet overhead. In this work, we model non-cooperative gaming to determine the optimal probability of responding to a DIS packet. Subsequently, we design a trust model to detect malicious DIS transmission in 6TiSCH networks. Finally, we merge both the proposed gaming model and trust model to propose a scheme – Gaming and Trust based Counter Measure (GTCM) to reduce the effect of DIS attack in 6TiSCH networks. We implement the GTCM on Contiki-NG and validate it using open source FIT IoT-LAB testbed. Our experimental testbed results show that GTCM reduces the effect of DIS attack in terms of pledges’ (new nodes) joining time and energy consumption significantly.

Performance Evaluation of ERGR-EMHC Routing Protocol using LSWTS and 3DUL Localization Schemes in UWSNs

This paper studies the impact of different localization schemes on the performance of location-based routing for UWSNs. Particularly, LSWTS and 3DUL localization schemes available in the literature are used to study their effects on the performance of the ERGR-EMHC routing protocol. First, we assess the performance of two localization schemes by measuring their localization coverage, accuracy, control packets overhead, and required localization time. We then study the performance of the ERGR-EMHC protocol using location information provided by the selected localization schemes. The results are compared with the performance of the routing protocol when using exact nodes’ locations. The obtained results show that LSWTS outperforms 3DUL in terms of localization accuracy by 83% and localization overhead by 70%. In addition, the results indicate that the localization error has a significant impact on the performance of the routing protocol. For instance, ERGR-EMHC with LSWTS is better in delivering data packets by an average of 175% compared to 3DUL.

Adaptive link quality routing protocol for UASNs with double forwarding modes

Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) has been used in various fields. However, UASNs is characterized by long delay, poor and time-varying link quality and unequal node distribution. Opportunistic routing (OR) uses broadcast forwarding to overcome poor link quality, but it increases delay compared to unicast forwarding, and most OR protocols cannot overcome routing voids. This paper proposes an Adaptive Link Quality Routing Protocol (ALQR) with double forwarding modes to solve these problems. This protocol innovatively selects the forwarding mode adaptively by link quality and uses distance vectors to construct candidate set to avoid routing voids and long detour. First, a new query algorithm is proposed to obtain the residual energy of neighbors and establish all distance vectors between sensor nodes and sink nodes, reducing the overhead of control packets. Distance vectors guide senders to determine the candidate set and avoid routing voids and long detours based on the shortest path principle. Second, an improved triangle metric is introduced to measure the accurate link quality. Based on this, a novel forwarding strategy combining unicast and broadcast is proposed. The unicast forwarding mode directedly select next hop based on route cost, which shortens the delay. Moreover, a new priority-based waiting-competition mechanism is proposed to determine the forwarding nodes in the broadcast forwarding mode, reducing redundant packets. The simulation results indicate that ALQR outperforms other routing protocols in terms of end-to-end delay and energy consumption when sacrificing little PDR. Specifically, delay is reduced by an average of 37.51% and 19.54% and energy consumption is reduced by an average of 35.01% and 16.41%, compared to DBR and DVOR.

An optimized framework for VANET routing: A multi-objective hybrid model for data synchronization with digital twin

The utilization of Digital Twin technology allows for the simulation of network behavior, anticipating traffic surges, and implementing efficient traffic routing strategies to prevent congestion. This enhances network efficiency and improves overall speed. However, VANETs (Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks) pose unique challenges due to their dynamic nature and frequent network disconnects. Developing and implementing effective VANET routing protocols becomes complex considering these factors. To address these challenges, a novel hybrid optimization model is proposed in this research. The model comprises optimal Cluster Head (CH) selection for data transmission. The clustering of mobile nodes is initially performed, but ensuring consistency in fast-paced environments remains a significant challenge. Therefore, the selection of the most suitable node as the CH is crucial. This research introduces a novel route selection mechanism that focuses on optimal CH selection. Multiple objectives such as mean routing load, packet delivery ratio, throughput, End-to-End Delay, and Control packet overhead are considered in the CH selection process. To determine the ideal CH from a pool of potential candidates, a new hybrid optimization model called Hunger's Foraging Behavior Customized Honey Badger Optimization (HFCHBO) is introduced. The HFCHBO combines the standard Honey Badger Algorithm (HBA) with Hunger Games Search (HGS). This hybrid model effectively formulates successful routing paths for data transmission between vehicles and the CH to the Base Station (BS). By combining these two approaches, the HFCHBO model aims to overcome the limitations of traditional clustering algorithms in ensuring consistent performance in dynamic environments. The proposed route selection mechanism incorporates multiple objectives to evaluate the performance of potential CHs, including mean routing load, packet delivery ratio, throughput, End-to-End Delay, and Control packet overhead. To facilitate data transmission between vehicles and the CH to the Base Station (BS), the HFCHBO model formulates successful routing paths. By utilizing the simulation capabilities of the Digital Twin technology, the model analyzes the network behavior, predicts traffic patterns, and makes informed decisions on routing strategies.

A Lightweight Energy-Efficient Algorithm for mitigation and isolation of Internal Rank Attackers in RPL based Internet of Things

Internet of Things (IoT) has become a pivotal technology for connecting various physical things or devices to the internet. Despite the potential advantages, security in IoT network continues to be a major concern due to enormous volume of the data generated and transmitted. Since the devices in IoT are resource-constrained and heterogeneous, it is becoming harder to maintain security in routing protocols such as Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy networks (RPL). RPL uses control packets for the construction of tree topology and it is prone to various attacks such as flood, version, rank and so on. Rank attack leads to the formation of loop, increased latency in packet delivery, energy depletion in nodes, decreased delivery ratio of packets and so on. Since the impact of the rank attack is high on the network, a lightweight energy-efficient algorithm is needed for the detection and isolation of rank attackers. The proposed Rank Attack Detection (RAD) algorithm uses a non-cryptographic hash algorithm to preserve the integrity of control packets. It uses random sampling to reduce energy consumption. Once the rank attacker is detected, an alarm is generated against the attackers. The alarm is not a separate control packet; it is appended to the control message itself. The proposed algorithm is analysed using different topologies by comparing it with the already existing algorithms in terms of control packet overhead, delivery ratio, latency for delivery of data packets, accuracy and energy consumption. It achieves better accuracy in grid-centered topology and the average energy consumption is reduced in random topology.

EEM-MAC: Enhanced energy efficient mobility aware MAC protocol for mobile internet of things

Mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSNs) have become a foremost solution in many emerging applications both in industry and academia. Moreover, considering the mobile node in WSN is a challenging task to designing efficient communication protocols, specifically at a medium access control (MAC) layer. Most of the existing protocols consider only for static and slow mobility. To meet with future MIoT applications, in this paper we propose Enhanced Energy Efficient Mobility aware MAC (EEM-MAC) protocol. Our EEM-MAC protocol consists of 3 contributions i) static synchronization and mobility handling phase to support both environments, ii) By using queue length-based channel access priority for static nodes, and iii) the combined highest signal strength and node status-based channel access priority for mobile nodes without any control packet overhead. The simulation results verify that EEM-MAC yields a notable improvement in the average power consumption, packet latency, and packet delivery ratio performances against the well-known mobility-aware MAC protocols under different mobility models and environments.

Adaptive QoS-Aware Multi-Metrics Gateway Selection Scheme for Heterogenous Vehicular Network

A heterogeneous vehicular network (HetVNET) is a promising network architecture that combines multiple network technologies such as IEEE 802.11p, dedicated short-range communication (DSRC), and third/fourth generation cellular networks (3G/4G). In this network area, vehicle users can use wireless fidelity access points (Wi-Fi APs) to offload 4G long-term evolution (4G-LTE) networks. However, when using Wi-Fi APs, the vehicles must organize themselves and select an appropriate mobile gateway (MGW) to communicate to the cellular infrastructure. Researchers are facing the problem of selecting the best MGW vehicle to aggregate vehicle traffic and reduce LTE load in HetVNETs when the Wi-Fi APs are unavailable for offloading. The selection process utilizes extra network overhead and complexity due to the frequent formation of clusters in this highly dynamic environment. In this study, we proposed a non-cluster adaptive QoS-aware gateway selection (AQAGS) scheme that autonomously picks a limited number of vehicles to act as LTE gateways based on the LTE network’s load status and vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) application’s QoS requirements. The present AQAGS scheme focuses on highway scenarios. The proposed scheme was evaluated using simulation of Urban mobility (SUMO) and network simulator version 2 (NS2) simulators and benchmarked with the clustered and non-clustered schemes. A comparison was made based on the end-to-end delay, throughput, control packet overhead (CPO), and packet delivery ratio (PDR) performance metrics over Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) applications. Using VoIP, the AQAGS scheme achieved a 26.7% higher PDR compared with the other schemes.

A Software Defined Networking-based Routing Algorithm for Flying Ad Hoc Networks

Flying Ad-Hoc Networks (FANET) are wireless mobile ad-hoc networks composed of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) as communicating nodes. As with any computer network, routing is an essential problem that has to be solved efficiently for high performance. FANETs present unique challenges with respect to routing, due to their structures. FANET systems have high dynamicity as the nodes move at very high speeds and UAVs can behave in accordance with various mobility models. The nodes usually have line of sight between them, but FANET systems frequently operate on large topologies with low node density. Hence, the structure of the topology changes rapidly, and the frequency of link disconnections between UAVs increases. Traditional topology-based and position-based routing algorithms do not work well in the face of this problem. In this study, we propose a novel SDN-based Routing Protocol which comprises both proactive and reactive components in order to improve the performance. Software Defined Networking technology is used as the network management architecture. To investigate the performance of the proposed protocol against legacy MANET routing protocols, a comparison study was conducted in terms of throughput, end-to-end delay, and control packet overhead. Simulation results show that the proposed SDN-based Routing Protocol performs better than the selected legacy protocols.

An energy‐efficient auto clustering framework for enlarging quality of service in Internet of Things‐enabled wireless sensor networks using fuzzy logic system

SummaryThe advancement of the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies will play a vital role in the evolution of the smart city, smart healthcare, and smart grid applications. Wireless sensor network (WSN) is one of the futuristic technologies utilized for sensing and data exchange processes in IoT‐enabled applications. However, the hotspot problem, control packet overhead, and inefficient clustering are the most significant challenges to attaining an energy‐efficient IoT‐enabled WSN (IWSN) model. Most of the existing clustering schemes lagged to mitigate these aforesaid constraints since it consumes extra energy for data computation and forwarding tasks under any environmental conditions. In this article, a novel energy‐efficient auto clustering (EEAC) framework has been proposed to develop an effective IWSN model with enhanced quality of service. The EEAC framework comprises three phases such as zone formation, node classification, and auto clustering phases. The objective of the first phase is to significantly form the different zones by alleviating the hotspot problem. Subsequently, the fuzzy logic algorithm is employed in the second phase to classify the nodes as master, sub‐master, and member nodes. Finally, the third phase of the proposed framework will accomplish the auto clustering mechanism based on hop information received from the reported packet. The performance results evident that the proposed EEAC framework obtains a lesser energy consumption of 0.01 J during a dense network and the network lifetime is prolonged up to 52% when compared with existing state‐of‐the‐art clustering models.

Energy Aware Stable Multipath Disjoint Routing Based on Accumulated Trust Value in MANETs

Conserving energy and finding the stable path are the two vital issues in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) as the prior increases the network lifetime and the later increases the network throughput. The nodes which are not legitimate in terms of residual energy and packet forwarding history might be a threat to the path thereby making the path unstable. Thus, it results in frequent link failure, reduced throughput, reduced network and path life time. In order to reduce these hazards, authors have proposed an energy efficient, reliable path selecting protocol referred to as Trust Based Energy Aware Multipath Disjoint Routing Protocol (TEA-MDRP) for MANETS in this article. TEA-MDRP finds the optimum route between the source and the destination nodes using two parameters namely, the Accumulated Trust Value (ATV) and the node’s residual energy (N_res). ATV is calculated based on the packet forwarding status of the node which shows how good the node is in terms of packet forwarding point of view. TEA-MDRP allows only the nodes which have a good ATV and sufficient residual energy. A good ATV shows loyalty in forwarding the packets while a sufficiently large residual energy node avoids frequent path breakups and packet drops. Thus, the TEA-MDRP not only increases the network and path lifetime but also increases the throughput of the communication. Further, with the legitimate nodes in the paths, the TEA-MDRP considerably reduces the control packet overhead which might occur because of the frequent route re-discovery process. An extensive simulation is carried out using Network Simulator-2.35 for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of TEA-MDRP. The results obtained are compared with classical AOMDV and the results are satisfactory.

Enhancing Route lifetime in Vehicular Ad Hoc ?Networks Based on Skellam Distribution Model

The emergence of smart cities and the need to use intelligent transportation systems has led to an increased reliance on vehicle ad hoc networks (VANET). The topology of VANET is highly dynamic, which results in a short effective routing time. This paper presents a two-stage algorithm to select a route that can sustain communication between vehicles for as long as possible while taking into account the variables that affect the VANET topology. The first stage uses Skellam distribution model to assess the connectivity probability of paths in ?a 2d road network based on traffic-flow and the number of vehicles ?joining and leaving the ?network, accordingly, the path with the highest connectivity is chosen. In the second stage, the control packets sent only to vehicles on the selected path to detect routes between source and destination, thus reducing the overhead of control packets and increasing network stability. ? the algorithm adopts the principle of global evaluation to ?estimate the lifetime ?of the ?detected ?routes within the chosen path. ?the route with the ?best estimated ?lifetime ?is ?chosen to be ?the active route. ?in the event of route failure, the validity of the next route in lifetime is confirmed to be adopted as the alternate route. The proposed algorithm was compared with both on-?demand distance ?vector routing protocol (AODV) protocol and the modified location-aided routing ??(LAR) ?protocol. The proposed algorithm showed greater network stability, higher performance in terms of longer lifetime route detection, less energy consumption and higher throughput.

Scheduled Access Strategy for Improving Sensor Node Battery Life Time and Delay Analysis of Wireless Body Area Network

In WBAN, energy efficiency is a major concern. The sensor nodes attached to the human body are battery-powered devices with a finite lifespan. These sensor nodes assist in gathering biological data from the human body and transmitting it to a control device. In WBAN, the MAC protocol is critical in evaluating a protocol’s energy efficiency. Traditional MAC protocols aim to boost throughput and bandwidth efficiency. The most critical aspect is that they lack in energy conserving mechanism. By employing correct control techniques that aid in the efficient use of energy resources, the useful network life time can be extended. Several MAC protocols for WBAN have been devised to reduce energy consumption, and packet collision, idle listening, overhearing, and control packet overhead are the main causes of energy waste in wireless networks. Idle listening, packet overhead, overhearing, and collision rate are all addressed by the energy-saving technique. In WBAN, we introduced a novel energy-efficient MAC protocol called Scheduled Access MAC (SAMAC) to extend the network life time without sacrificing QoS. Using the Castalia simulator, we analyze and compare the performance of our proposed SAMAC to that of the BaselineMAC (IEEE 802.15.6) and ZigBeeMAC (IEEE 802.15.4) in terms of energy consumption, packet delivery ratio, and end-to-end delay. In terms of both energy conversion and WBAN Quality of Service, our simulation results suggest that our proposed SAMAC is more efficient than Baseline MAC and ZigBeeMAC.

Enhancing Route lifetime in Vehicular Ad Hoc ‎Networks Based on Skellam Distribution Model

The emergence of smart cities and the need to use intelligent transportation systems has led to an increased reliance on vehicle ad hoc networks (VANET). The topology of VANET is highly dynamic, which results in a short effective routing time. This paper presents a two-stage algorithm to select a route that can sustain communication between vehicles for as long as possible while taking into account the variables that affect the VANET topology. The first stage uses Skellam distribution model to assess the connectivity probability of paths in ‎a 2d road network based on traffic-flow and the number of vehicles ‎joining and leaving the ‎network, accordingly, the path with the highest connectivity is chosen. In the second stage, the control packets sent only to vehicles on the selected path to detect routes between source and destination, thus reducing the overhead of control packets and increasing network stability. ‎ the algorithm adopts the principle of global evaluation to ‎estimate the lifetime ‎of the ‎detected ‎routes within the chosen path. ‎the route with the ‎best estimated ‎lifetime ‎is ‎chosen to be ‎the active route. ‎in the event of route failure, the validity of the next route in lifetime is confirmed to be adopted as the alternate route. The proposed algorithm was compared with both on-‎demand distance ‎vector routing protocol (AODV) protocol and the modified location-aided routing ‎‎(LAR) ‎protocol. The proposed algorithm showed greater network stability, higher performance in terms of longer lifetime route detection, less energy consumption and higher throughput.

Multicast DIS attack mitigation in RPL-based IoT-LLNs

The IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) was standardised by the IETF ROLL Working Group to address the routing issues in the Internet of Things (IoT) Low-Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs). RPL builds and maintains a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) topology using pieces of information propagated within the DODAG Information Object (DIO) control message. When a node intends to join the DODAG, it either waits for DIO or sends a DODAG Information Solicitation (DIS) control message Multicast to solicit DIOs from nearby nodes. Nevertheless, sending Multicast DIS messages resets the timer that regulates the transmission rate of DIOs to its minimum value, which leads to the network’s congestion with control messages. Because of the resource-constrained nature of RPL-LLNs, the lack of tamper resistance, and the security gaps of RPL, malicious nodes can exploit the Multicast DIS solicitation mechanism to trigger an RPL-specification-based attack, named DIS attack. The DIS attack can have severe consequences on RPL networks, especially on control packets overhead and power consumption. In this paper, we use the Cooja–Contiki simulator to assess the DIS attack’s effects on both static and dynamic PRL networks. Besides, we propose and implement a novel approach, namely RPL-MRC, to improve the RPL’s resilience against DIS Multicast. RPL-MRC aims to reduce the response to DIS Multicast messages. Simulation results demonstrate how the attack could damage the network performance by significantly increasing the control packets overhead and power consumption. On the other hand, the RPL-MRC proposed mechanism shows a significant enhancement in reducing the control overhead and power consumption for different scenarios.

Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL in Multi-Hop Indoor Wireless Networks

In home and building automation applications, wireless sensor devices need to be connected via unreliable wireless links within a few hundred milliseconds. Routing protocols in Low-power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) need to support reliable data transmission with an energy-efficient manner and short routing convergence time. IETF standardized the Point-to-Point RPL (P2P-RPL) routing protocol, in which P2P-RPL propagates the route discovery messages over the whole network. This leads to significant routing control packet overhead and a large amount of energy consumption. P2P-RPL uses the trickle algorithm to control the transmission rate of routing control packets. The non-deterministic message suppression nature of the trickle algorithm may generate a sub-optimal routing path. The listen-only period of the trickle algorithm may lead to a long network convergence time. In this paper, we propose Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL, which achieves energy-efficient P2P data delivery with a fast routing request procedure. The proposed algorithm uses the location information to limit the network search space for the desired route discovery to a smaller location-constrained forwarding zone. The Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL also dynamically selects the listen-only period of the trickle timer algorithm based on the transmission priority related to geographic position information. The location information of each node is obtained from the Impulse-Response Ultra-WideBand (IR-UWB)-based cooperative multi-hop self localization algorithm. We implement Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL on Contiki OS, an open-source operating system for LLNs and the Internet of Things. The performance results show that the Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL reduced the routing control packet overheads, energy consumption, and network convergence time significantly. The cooperative multi-hop self localization algorithm improved the practical implementation characteristics of the P2P-RPL protocol in real world environments. The collision avoidance algorithm using the dynamic trickle timer increased the operation efficiency of the P2P-RPL under various wireless channel conditions with a location-constrained routing space.

A Routing Technique for Enhancing the Quality of Service in Vanet

VANET (Vehicular Ad- hoc Network) is becoming a part of a smart city in this communicating world. The major issue is frequent “Link Breakage Problem” between Source vehicle and Forwarding Vehicles (FV). If a source vehicle wants to send a set of the data packet to a destination vehicle there needs to have an FV(s) to transmit the data, given the destination vehicle is situated outside the communication range. Normally the Link Breakage problem degrades the quality of service (QoS) of VANET, which in turn degrades the parameters which determine the QoS. These are Packet Delivery Ratio, increases End to End delay, increases the Control Packet Overhead and reduces the data rate, namely bit/sec/vehicle. In our new method, we have made all the above parameters better than existing methods by a new approach, which enable an End to End communicate for a long-time. It is done by choosing a possible FV, which will remain in the transmission zone of the source unless the complete data packet is received by the FV. This is done by defining an “Effective Region” we call it “E-region”, where FV was chosen from that region. This region is defined from a calculated parameter “E”. This parameter E is calculated from the relative velocity of the source and the chosen forwarding vehicle. We have found that our method can deliver about 14.8 kbit/sec/Vehicle data compared to other methods which were ranging from (7.87–1.21) kbit/sec/Vehicle for 300 vehicles in the network.

Fuzzy logic-based VANET routing method to increase the QoS by considering the dynamic nature of vehicles

Vehicular ad hoc network usually operates in various challenging situations like frequent topology changes, high vehicular mobility and the wide range of communication networks. Due to this it is very hard to maintain a higher data rate and also to achieve low latency during data communication. To overcome these problems, given the dynamic natures of all the vehicles in a given network in the proposed routing method, we have defined two fundamental parameters to determine the forwarding vehicle. The first parameter, which we developed, we call it “Channel quality factor (CQF)” or ‘Z’. The other parameter known as “Communication expiration time” or ‘T’ together with CQF is used in the present method to determine the forwarding vehicle. Fuzzy logic is also used to optimize various Quality of Service matrices. This proposed routing method involves two main parts; one is for forwarding Vehicle selection in the road based on the fuzzy logic. The second one is Road selection at the Road Junction to select the right path to reach the signal to the destination vehicle. The simulation results show that our proposed method performs well compare to other well-known protocols (MoZo, BRAVE, OFAODV) in terms of the average end to end delay, packet delivery ratio and control packet overhead, given any number of vehicles in a set of streets. While we are comparing with VEFR protocol, our proposed method shows higher performance in terms of average E2E delay and control packet overhead. However, it is interesting to see that VEFR gives $$\sim $$ 5% better result than our proposed method when the number of vehicles in the streets are lower. But in the limit, when the number of vehicles reaches close to $$\sim $$ 1900 the difference between the proposed method and method in VEFR goes to zero. At last we compare our proposed method with junction based two V2I protocols. In every cases, it shows better result even though we change the speed of the vehicles, beacon interval, channel data rate and transmission region.