Control Of Insect Pests Research Articles

Towards pest outbreak predictions: Are models supported by field monitoring the new hope?

Physiologically-based models are the core of Decision Support Systems (DSS) for insect pest and disease control in cultivated fields. However, the large-scale use of DSS remains scarce and limited, despite the continuous update and formulation of new models by the literature. The main reason behind this lack of real-world use relates to the purely descriptive approach of these models, which are usually validated a posteriori. The major limiting factors that preclude the use of these tools for prediction purposes are their dependence on time zero and initial abundance to start the simulations. In this study, we present a theoretical framework that includes field monitoring data as an active part of a pest population density model simulation, which helps to overcome these obstacles. More specifically, we propose the application of an estimator scheme in the form of an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) to a revised physiologically-based model from the literature. In the paper, we carry out a preliminary test of the theoretical framework applied to the case of Drosophila suzukii. This case study shows that the dependence of the simulations on the initial conditions and time zero is strongly reduced by using the EKF. Overall, the outcome of this research indicates that an estimator scheme is a necessary step to move from description to prediction in the pest population modelling field.

Insect pest predation by arthropods and birds in different land use types with varying woody vegetation composition in agroecosystems of central Oromia, Ethiopia

Biological control by predators of insect pests is an important benefit of biodiversity, having a contribution to agricultural production. By preying on crop infesting insect pests, predatory arthropods and birds can provide an important ecosystem service. They support agricultural productivity, boosting crop yield and reducing demand for pesticides expense. Habitat quality of land use types, i.e., explained by vegetation cover, can impact the provision of ecosystem services thereby influencing the prevalence of the predators and their predation rates. In order to better understand the level of insect pest control service by predators, we conducted a field experiment to investigate levels of predation, using an attack on artificial caterpillars in response to land use types varied in vegetation cover. We found the attack rate by arthropods was more consistent across land use types than by birds, and the attack by birds was higher in modified land use types with sparse woody vegetation. Moreover, the attack rate for birds showed a decreasing tendency with increasing woody species richness, cover and stem density, while it showed less variation for arthropods. We conclude that biological control by birds is more effective in habitats with simplified vegetation cover than for arthropods in agricultural landscapes. Therefore, we recommend the prevalence of shade trees and small forest patches in agricultural landscapes for supporting the increased levels of insect pest control services provided by predatory birds and arthropods.

Acute Toxicity of Botanical Pesticides, Neem Oil (<i>Azadirachta indica</i>) and <i>Polygonum hydropiper</i> Leaf Extracts in Fingerlings of <i>Catla catla</i> (ham.)

Use of botanical pesticides is considered a safe and environment friendly method for controlling rice insect pests in lowland. To explore the possibility of using neem oil (Azadirachta indica) and the leaf extract of Polygonum hydropiper (a lowland weed) as botanical pesticides against rice insect pest in lowland rice-fish ecosystem, acute toxicity experiments were conducted in control condition using fingerlings of Catla catla (4.4±0.4 g, 7.3±0.6 cm) as the test fish. The botanicals were applied as emulsion by adding ‘labolene’ (a liquid detergent) as the emulsifier to neem oil and grinded leaf of P. hydropiper. The immediate knockdown effect in terms of fish mortality was recorded in both the botanicals within first 24 hours of application. No fish mortality was observed after 24 hours indicating faster biodegradation of these toxicants. The 24 h LC50 were found to be 36.6 l/l for neem oil and 4.6 mg/l for leaf of P. hydropiper. These concentrations are much higher than the recommended dose applied against insect pest in rice crop. The study indicates that these two botanicals can be used in rice-fish ecosystem at their recommended dose level for control of rice insect pest without any fish mortality.

Talaromyces sp. Ethyl Acetate Crude Extract as Potential Mosquitocide to Control Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus.

Vector control is considered an effective approach to controlling diseases spread by mosquito bites. Entomopathogenic fungi are widely used in agriculture to control insect pests, and fungal metabolites can potentially be developed as effective mosquitocides. In this study, a high-throughput screening method was used to search for potential mosquitocides in the Global Fungal Extract Library (GFEL). We tested the larvicidal activity of 264 fungal ethyl acetate crude extracts against Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Nine fungal extracts caused moderate to high mortality rates (>50%), with two fungal extracts (58A7 and 101H12) causing a 100% mortality rate. The lethal concentrations for 50% of the population (LC50) were 44.27 mg/L and 31.90 mg/L, respectively. Fraction 14 had a high mortality rate, with an LC50 value of 12.13 mg/L, and was isolated from 58A7 (Fractions 1-11) and 101H12 (Fractions 12-15). Further analyses showed that Fraction 14 was made up of vermistatin and dihydrovermistatin. In a Cx. p. quinquefasciatus larvicidal bioassay, vermistatin (LC50 = 28.13 mg/L) was more toxic than dihydrovermistatin (LC50 = 83.87 mg/L). Our findings suggested that the active fungal extract 101H12 from Talaromyces sp. and its compound vermistatin could be developed as mosquitocides.

Developing a Sustainable Spraying Regime for Cowpea Seed Production in South West Nigeria

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) production in Nigeria is burdened by insect pest infestations throughout its developmental stages. Farmers rely on the use of conventional insecticides for insect pest control; however, these insecticides are often wrongly used, thereby resulting in undesirable effects on seed yield and the ecosystem. Cowpea was cultivated under different insecticide application regimes and its effect on seed production was evaluated at three substations of the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, located at Ibadan in Oyo state (Rain forest transiting to derived savannah), Ilora in Oyo state (Derived savannah) and Ballah in Kwara state (Southern Guinea savannah). The trial was conducted during the cowpea cropping seasons of year 2018 and 2019. Ten treatments included 10 sprays of 2.5 EC lambda-cyhalothrin and cowpea varieties Ife Brown and IT2246. The experimental layout was split-split plot in a randomised complete block design. The results show a reduction in percentage aphids infestation as the spraying regimes increased on both cowpea varieties. The lowest values of 1.53 and 1.58% on Ife Brown and IT2246 respectively, were recorded on 200m/ha of four regime spray. Similar results were recorded on the number of thrips, the population of Clavigralla spp and number of pods/plant. Average seed yield under 3 spraying regime increased for both Ife Brown and IT2246 with increase in concentration of pesticide across locations except Ibadan where the yield reduced when the concentration was increased to 600 ml/ha. The spraying regimes of Lambda-cyhalotrin at foliage, flowering and podding have considerable potential for managing the pest of cowpea, but their impact of cowpea grain yield varies significantly.

Identification and characterization of a novel Iflavirus in a stored-product psocid, Liposcelis bostrychophila (Psocodea: Liposcelididae)

Liposcelis bostrychophila (Badonnel) is a worldwide stored-product pest that tends to develop resistance to commonly used insecticides rapidly. To control insect pest biologically, insect-specific viruses (ISVs) are considered to be a promising agent, but few ISVs have been reported in stored-product psocids. In this study, a novel iflavirus named Liposcelis bostrychophila iflavirus (LbIFV) was identified. This virus has a genome length of 9,263 nucleotides and was isolated from L. bostrychophila using RNA-Seq technology. The polyprotein of LbIFV contains two picornavirus capsid protein-like domains, an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain, an RNA helicase, and a 3C-protease. The virus replicates in its host, and triggers the activation of the host's antiviral immunity, specifically through the small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based mechanism. Phylogenetic analysis showed that LbIFV clustered with Bundaberg bee virus 4, Sacbrood virus, and Darwin bee virus 4, which suggested that LbIFV was presumed to belong to Iflaviridae. LbIFV was transmitted vertically from parent to offspring, and the viral infection rate reached 100%. LbIFV was present at all developmental stages of L. bostrychophila, and it successfully co-existed in this psocid for a long period. The abundance of LbIFV in L. bostrychophila decreased significantly under high temperatures and insecticide exposures. In summary, LbIFV is the first characterized RNA virus in Liposcelis species, and it established stable symbiotic relationships with L. bostrychophila.

What Is More Important to Host-Seeking Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Innate or Learned Preference?

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs), small soil-dwelling non-segmented roundworms, are obligate parasites of insects and commonly used in agriculture for biological control of insect pests. For successful reproduction, EPNs must identify, move towards, and successfully infect a suitable insect host in a chemically complex soil environment. EPNs can have innate host insect preferences and can be attracted to semiochemicals associated with that host. They can also develop strong learned preferences for chemical signals associated with the presence of a host, such as herbivory-induced volatiles. We hypothesized that simultaneous manipulation of innate and learned preferences could result in increased biological control services of EPNs in agriculture. Separate cohorts of the EPN Steinernema diaprepesi were raised on two insect hosts, Galleria mellonella and Tenebrio molitor, for multiple generations until the nematodes in a dual-choice olfactometer exhibited preference for the host they were reared on. Subsequently, the two strains of nematodes were imprinted on three plant-produced terpenoids of agricultural significance: pregeijerene, β-caryophyllene, and α-pinene. After exposure to one of the plant compounds, the behavior of the EPNs was assayed in an olfactometer where the two host insects were presented with and without the plant compounds. We found that plant volatile exposure increased the infection rate of the nematodes, and some host–compound combinations proved to be attractive, but other combinations appeared to become repellent. These results indicate that learned preference is neither subordinate nor superior to innate preference, and that infection efficiency can vary with compound exposure and insect host.

Farmers' and rural extension workers' perceptions on the adoption of the integrated pest management

As one important element of food culture, the common bean can be found in diverse countries and social classes. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can help rationalize the use of insecticides to control insect pests in bean crops. This grain is an important element for food security and can be found in different countries and social classes. The present study aimed to examine rural extension professionals' and farmers' after participating in the “Plante seu Futuro” (“Grow your future”) program of the Government of the State of Paraná-Brazil in its component “Integrated Management of Pests and Diseases”, with the objective of identifying common points of view, positive and negative aspects that can be considered in the dissemination of the IPM. For that, semi-structured interview scripts were applied. The technical procedure used was the multi-case study, based on seven farmers and seven rural extension workers, employees of an official institution of Technical Assistance and Rural Extension, totaling about 20% of the program participants. The information was transcribed, organized, and subjected to content analysis. The intensity of discourses concerning the IPM before and after the experiment shows that even those farmers and rural extensionists who had a negative opinion about the IPM present favorable discourses and unanimity in the categorization of ends in the face of material success as justification for adopting the IPM after the experience. However, lack of information and/or knowledge about the practice was mentioned as a barrier, implying the need for technicians and farmers to be trained in order to spread IPM.

The effect of plant pesticide Tondxir against the stored product Moth, Ephestia cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

T Many plant extracts could be considered natural, effective methods for controlling insect pests instead of synthetic chemicals. The current examination was designed to assess the mortality percentages of the plant-based pesticide Tondxir on the date moth Ephestia cautella. A series of experiments were carried out in the laboratory to evaluate the pesticide Tondxir's effectiveness in controlling the second and fifth larval stages and the adults of t he date moth. The highest percentage of mortality rates for the second larval stage reached 100% after 5 days at a concentration of 3 ml/liter. However, the mortality rates of the fifth stage and the adult of E. cautella reached 42.14% and 17.50% after two weeks of treatment. A direct relationship was found between the increase in mortality rates with increasing pesticide concentration. The highest percentage of mortality was increased in the fifth larval stage of E. cautella, and they reached 42.14% at the third concentration, compared with the rest of the concentrations. The lowest mortality rate was for the concentration (1ml/liter), as the mortality rate reached (26.07) after 14 days of treatment.

Drosophila X virus-like particles as delivery carriers for improved oral insecticidal efficacy of scorpion Androctonus australis peptide against the invasive fruit fly, Drosophila suzukii.

Insect-specific neurotoxic peptides derived from the venoms of scorpions and spiders can cause acute paralysis and death when injected into insects, offering a promising insecticidal component for insect pest control. However, effective delivery systems are required to help neurotoxic peptides pass through the gut barrier into the hemolymph, where they can act. Here, we investigated the potential of a novel nanocarrier, Drosophila X virus-like particle (DXV-VLP), for delivering a neurotoxin from the scorpion Androctonus australis Hector (AaIT) against the invasive pest fruit fly, Drosophila suzukii. Our results show that the fusion proteins of DXV polyproteins with AaIT peptide at their C-termini could be sufficiently produced in Lepidoptera Hi5 cells in a soluble form using the recombinant baculovirus expression system, and could self-assemble into VLPs with similar particle morphology and size to authentic DXV virions. In addition, the AaIT peptides displayed on DXV-VLPs retained their toxicity, as demonstrated in injection bioassays that resulted in severe mortality (72%) in adults after 72 h. When fed to adults, mild mortality was observed in the group treated with DXV-AaIT (38%), while no mortality occurred in the group treated with AaIT peptide, thus indicating the significant role of DXV-VLPs in delivering AaIT peptides. Overall, this proof-of-concept study demonstrates for the first time that VLPs can be exploited to enhance oral delivery of insect-specific neurotoxic peptides in the context of pest control. Moreover, it provides insights for further improvements and potentially the development of neurotoxin-based bioinsecticides and/or transgenic crops for insect pest control.

A Review on Methods for the Elimination of Imidacloprid: 2018–2022

AbstractImidacloprid, a neonicotinoid insecticide is used widely in agricultural fields to control insect pests. It exhibits insecticidal property by blocking the insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). However, its excessive use over the decades has become hazardous to the living beings and environment. Thus, it is crucial to find out an efficient and effective way for the elimination of imidacloprid from the environment. To meet this requirement, scientists across the world are working on various remediation approaches such as physical (adsorption), chemical (oxidation, hydrolysis, illumination) and biological (microbial degradation). This review focuses on various approaches for the elimination of imidacloprid from the environment and also highlights the associated merits and demerits. The review will pave the way for the scientific community to develop more simple and eco‐friendly approaches for imidacloprid elimination.

An efficient mutagenesis system to improve the propamocarb tolerance in Lecanicillium lecanii (Zimmermann) Zare & Gams.

Lecanicillium lecanii (Zimmermann) Zare & Gams is used as an effective biopesticide for the control of sap-sucking insect pests on agricultural crops. However, low fungicide tolerance limits its large-scale field application. To improve the propamocarb tolerance in L. lecanii, a composite mutagenesis system was established by using UV-light (U), N-Methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (NTG) (N) and N+ ion-beam (I). The permutation type of three agents was a consecutive mutagenesis treatment (I/N/U) after an intermittent treatment (U + N + I). The "U" mutagenesis was performed at 254 nm for 60 s and at a distance of 45 cm under a 20 W germicidal lamp, the "N" mutagenesis was performed at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL NTG for 60 min, and the "I" mutagenesis was performed by low energy N+ ion-beam using a dose of 10 × 1013 ions/cm2 at 30 keV. This composite mutagenesis system was recorded as the "U + N + I + I/N/U," and then the mutagenesis efficiency in improving propamocarb tolerance was assessed by analyzing changes of mutants in the propamocarb sensitivity, mitotic stability, mycelial growth speed on plates or in liquid, sporulation on plates or aphids, conidial germination, 50% lethal concentration (LC50) and 50% lethal time (LT50) to aphids, lipid constituent and cell membrane permeability and control against aphids in the presence or absence of propamocarb. Compared to the wild-type isolate with a 50% effective concentration (EC50) value of 503.6 μg/mL propamocarb, the Ll-IC-UNI produced by the "U + N + I + I/N/U" had the highest EC50 value of 3576.4 μg/mL and a tolerance ratio of 7.1. The mutant was mitotically stable in 20-passage cultivation and did not show any unfavorable changes in growth and virulence indicators. The mutant showed the highest ability to resist or avoid the damaging effects of propamocarb as reflected by the alternations of lipid constituents and membrane permeability. The interval time for applying fungal agent was significantly shortened in this mutant after spraying a field recommended dose of 550 μg/mL propamocarb. In conclude, the "U + N + I + I/N/U" composite mutagenesis mode was efficient and useful to improve the propamocarb-tolerance of L. lecanii and the obtained Ll-IC-UNI could have commercial potential for field application.

The role of baculoviruses in controlling insect pests: A review

The role of baculoviruses in controlling insect pests: A review

In situ baiting reveals occurrence of Heterorhabditis downesi at the German Baltic coast

ABSTRACT Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are well-established plant protection tools for the control of insect pests. The release of EPN species is often limited to species that are endemic in the country. Therefore, surveys to check for the presence of EPN species in the country are necessary. Here, a sampling and baiting method based on the in situ attraction of EPN to insects contained in a plastic tube is described. Heterorhabditis downesi was isolated from overgrown dunes at the Baltic coast and Steinernema feltiae from chromic luvisol further inland. This is the first report of the presence of H. downesi in Germany.

Correlation of fruit tree rhizosphere soils with entomopathogenic fungi

AbstractEntomopathogenic fungi are microorganisms that control the density of host insects in nature; they are being studied as environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical insecticides for controlling insect pests. The main habitat of entomopathogenic fungi is soil, and the correlation between the distribution of entomopathogenic fungi and the physicochemical characteristics of soils planted with different trees, including vine (outdoor, greenhouse, and greenhouse shine musket), apple, peach, and pear, were analyzed. The entomopathogenic fungi of the genera Beauveria, Metarhizium, and Purpureocillium investigated in this study were all found in soil samples from vine‐greenhouse, apple, and peach trees. Purpureocillium and Beauveria abundances were positively correlated with soil properties; however, Metarhizium abundances were not correlated with soil properties. The Metarhizium isolates discovered in this study showed pathogenicity to cotton aphids (an agricultural pest) and can be employed as sources for biological studies in the future. This study provides data on the diversity and abundance of entomopathogenic fungi related with soil properties, as well as the molecular, biological, and insecticidal characteristics of Metarhizium isolates.

Effect of drying and storage of corn seeds (Zea mays L.) on postharvest insect pest control in laboratory scales

Corn is one of the word’s most essential carbohydrate-producing food crops. In addition to being used as a staple food for most of the world’s population, corn seeds are also an essential component of animal feed. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of drying and storage time on the presence of warehouse pest populations. The research method was carried out by drying corn seeds under sun exposure for 6 hours/day. The experiment consisted of four treatments, namely drying time repeated three times. Observations consisted of weight loss of corn seeds, the population of warehouse pests, and damage intensity. The results of the observations were then analyzed by statistical tests followed by a real difference test. The results showed that the weight of corn seeds decreased with the length of the drying process. Drying for 18 hours was effective in suppressing the presence of warehouse pests such as S. zeamais (197.67 adults) and T. castaneum (1.67 adults). Drying time in addition to affecting the presence of warehouse pests, also significantly affects the intensity of the attack. Drying for 24 hours has a lower damage rate (13.05%) when compared to other drying times.

Effects of regional crop rotations on autumn insect pests in winter oilseed rape.

Chemical control of insect pests in oilseed rape (OSR) is becoming increasingly difficult due to the development of resistance and restrictive insecticide approvals in Europe. At the same time, there is a lack of preventive and alternative control measures. Crop rotation mostly fails to control insects due to their mobility; however, changing regional cropping densities can dilute or concentrate pest pressure. In this study, we investigated whether the local occurrence of Psylliodes chrysocephala and Delia radicum, serious insect pests in winter OSR, is influenced by distance from the previous year's OSR fields and how changes in OSR rape cropping density at a regional scale (up to 10 km radius) affect pest pressure. Abundance of P. chrysocephala in yellow water traps decreased with increasing distance to previous year's OSR. Estimated catches in the first 3 weeks of migration were about 68-76% lower at 10 km distance compared to 1 km in autumn 2019 and 2020. However, in both seasons P. chrysocephala was able to disperse over distances of 10 km. Probability of root damage by D. radicum was affected by changes of OSR cropping area at a spatial scale of 2.5 km radius; it increased if acreage of OSR decreased. Furthermore, aphid infestation was lower when OSR was distant in the previous year. This study could enable field-specific risk assessment and prediction of pest pressure. To decide about the effectiveness of cropping breaks at a regional level as a preventive crop protection measure, more knowledge on other pest species and antagonists is needed. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Cross-resistance and redundant killing of Vip3Aa resistant populations of Helicoverpa zea on purified Bt proteins and pyramided Bt crops.

Pyramiding Bt proteins is a key strategy to delay insect resistance development. However, the durability of pyramided Bt crops for controlling insect pests is threatened by cross-resistance among Bt proteins, which can ultimately contribute to resistance development. The corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea, is a major agricultural pest of pyramided Bt crops. Previous studies have examined cross-resistance and redundant killing of Cry resistance in H. zea, but such information is lacking for Vip3Aa resistance in this pest. Here, we evaluated cross-resistance and redundant killing of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea to purified Bt proteins, as well as Bt corn and Bt cotton. Diet bioassays demonstrated high susceptibility of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea to Cry1Ac, Cry1A.105, and Cry2Ab2 purified proteins. No Vip3Aa-susceptible, -heterozygous, or -resistant H. zea could survive on pyramided Bt corn containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins. Complete redundant killing was observed in pyramided Bt corn containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins against Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea. Vip3Aa-susceptible, -heterozygous, and -resistant H. zea exhibited survival rates ranging from 0.0% to 22.5% on pyramided Bt cotton with Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins. Incomplete to complete redundant killing was observed for Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea on pyramided Bt cotton containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins. Our findings indicate that Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea does not exhibit positive cross-resistance to Cry1 or Cry2 proteins. In addition, most pyramided Bt crops showed complete or nearly complete redundant killing of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea. These results indicate that a pyramiding strategy would often be effective for managing Vip3Aa resistance in regions of the United States where H. zea has not evolved resistance to Cry1 and Cry2 toxins. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

A Study on Adoption of IPM (Integrated Pest Management) in Cabbage and Cauliflower in Bishnupur District, Manipur

An insect pest problem is one of the important limiting factors in the profitable production of agricultural crops. In India, including Manipur, insect pest control is mainly base on the use of insecticidal chemicals because of their quicker action, easy availability and giving spectacular result within a short time, so, the concept of Integrated Pest Management emerged.Therefore the present study entitled "A Study on Adoption of IPM in Cabbage and Cauliflower at Bishnupur District of Manipur” was designed with the following objectives To study socio-psychological, extension-communication and agro-economic characteristics of the respondents.

The identification and expression pattern of the sex determination genes and their sex-specific variants in the egg parasitoid Trichogramma dendrolimi Matsumura (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae).

Introduction: Trichogramma wasps are egg parasitoids of agricultural lepidopteran pests. The sex of Trichogramma is determined by its ploidy as well as certain sex ratio distorters, such as the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia spp. and the paternal sex ratio (PSR) chromosome. The sex determination systems of hymenopterans, such as Trichogramma spp., involve cascades of the genes transformer (tra), transformer-2 (tra2), and doublesex (dsx) and are associated with sex-specific tra and dsx splicing. First, these genes and their sex-specific variants must be identified to elucidate the interactions between the sex ratio disorders and the sex determination mechanism of Trichogramma. Methods: Here, we characterized the sex determination genes tra, tra2, and dsx in Trichogramma dendrolimi. Sex-specific tra and dsx variants were detected in cDNA samples obtained from both male and female Trichogramma wasps. They were observed in the early embryos (1-10h), late embryos (12-20h), larvae (32h and 48h), pre-pupae (96h), and pupae (144h, 168h, 192h, and 216h) of both male and female T. dendrolimi offspring. Results: We detected female-specific tra variants throughout the entire early female offspring stage. The male-specific variant began to express at 9-10h as the egg was not fertilized. However, we did not find any maternally derived, female-specific tra variant in the early male embryo. This observation suggests that the female-specific tra variant expressed in the female embryo at 1-9h may not have originated from the maternal female wasp. Discussion: The present study might be the first to identify the sex determination genes and sex-specific gene splicing in Trichogramma wasps. The findings of this study lay the foundation for investigating the sex determination mechanisms of Trichogramma and other wasps. They also facilitate sex identification in immature T. dendrolimi and the application of this important egg parasitoid in biological insect pest control programs.