Fly Control Research Articles

Blood-feeding stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae), are attracted to, and transmit Staphylococcus aureus (Bacillales: Staphylococcaceae), a causal agent of bovine mastitis: a laboratory pilot study.

Stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Muscidae), are common blood-feeding ectoparasites of cows and thus potential vectors of the skin-dwelling bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, a causal agent of bovine mastitis which inflicts udder inflammation in cows. Our objectives were to determine whether stable flies (i) are attracted to disease-causing strains of S. aureus, and (ii) transmit S. aureus from infected blood to sterile blood. In 3-chamber olfactometers, five of eight S. aureus strains grown on agar and tested versus sterile agar attracted female stable flies. When flies ingested droplets of blood inoculated with S. aureus at doses of 0 (control), 105 (low), 107 (medium), and > 109 (high) colony-forming units per milliliter and subsequently ingested sterile blood, they transmitted S. aureus to the sterile blood. The dose of S. aureus in blood droplets fed upon by flies during their first feeding bout dose-dependently affected the amount of bacteria that flies transmitted to sterile blood during their second feeding bout, but the time elapsed between feeding bouts (0h, 1h, 8h, and 24h) had no effect on the amount of microbes transmitted to sterile blood. Our data infer the existence of a positive feedback loop. First, stable flies carrying S. aureus and feeding on cows transmit S. aureus, thereby causing mastitis. As S. aureus bacteria of afflicted cows proliferate, they attract even more flies which, in turn, worsen the infection. This type of feedback loop underscores the need for effective stable fly control tactics that curtail the incidence of bovine mastitis in cows.

Assessment of egg quality, food safety, and hygiene practices among commercial and non-commercial farms of Barwala district of Panchkula, Haryana

ABSTRACT Background: The aim of the present study was to assess the egg quality, food safety, and hygiene practices in egg production among commercial and non-commercial farms. Methods: A total of six, each commercial and non-commercial farm, were randomly selected form Barwala district, Panchkula, Haryana, for this study in 2019. A detailed interview on hygiene practices of farm workers was conducted. Egg samples were procured for external (N = 60) and internal (N = 24) egg quality determination. The swap samples (N = 24) were also analysed for bacterial contamination. Descriptive statistics were used for reporting the results, and Chi-square test was conducted for determining significant differences between commercial and non-commercial farms. Results: The egg yolk percentage (34.49%) and egg shell percentage (12.76) were higher among non-commercial farms. However, no significant external (P = 0.890) or internal (P = 0.367) egg quality difference was found between commercial and non-commercial farms. The biosecurity and disinfection management, daily waste disposal practice, fly and rodent control practice, farm activity record, and flock health monitoring were relatively better among commercial farms. There were no significant differences found in any of these assessments. The colony forming units (cfu) for salmonella and coliform were acceptable in three and four procured samples from commercial farms, respectively, whereas none were within acceptable levels among non-commercial farms. Conclusion: The internal egg quality, food safety, and hygiene practices were relatively better among commercial farms as compared to non-commercial farms. This requires further validation through a large sample-sized study.

Diversity and distribution of Mdace mutations involved in propoxur resistance in the house fly (Musca domestica L.) in China.

The house fly is a public health pest due to its ability to transmit various pathogens worldwide. The suppression of house flies is frequently controlled by organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, but recurrent selection has led to the mutated target. To understand the spread and evolution of Mdace mutations in house flies, we sampled flies in eight different China provinces, sequenced, and then estimated the frequencies of mutations. The inhibition of AChE towards propoxur varied geographically and was lowest in the Heilongjiang field population, and highest in Jiangsu population. The overall frequencies of the different Mdace mutations (V260L, G342A, G342V, F407Y) varied considerably between populations. Strong positive correlations were found between acetylcholinesterase (AChE) insensitivity and the frequencies of G342V allele, 342A/V genotype and combination (260V/L-342A/V-407Y/Y) for the field populations. Eighteen combinations of Mdace at three sites (V260L, G342A/V, F407Y) were observed, with the majority of flies being categorized into the combination (260V/L-342A/V-407Y/Y), ranging in frequency from 24% (in field populations in Hubei and Hainan) to 96% (Jiangsu). Based on comparison with historical data, the mutations responsible for the extremely high resistance to the level of insecticide resistance spread widely, propoxur should be limited to use for house fly control in China. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Bilateral interactions of optic-flow sensitive neurons coordinate course control in flies

Animals rely on compensatory actions to maintain stability and navigate their environment efficiently. These actions depend on global visual motion cues known as optic-flow. While the optomotor response has been the traditional focus for studying optic-flow compensation in insects, its simplicity has been insufficient to determine the role of the intricate optic-flow processing network involved in visual course control. Here, we reveal a series of course control behaviours in Drosophila and link them to specific neural circuits. We show that bilateral electrical coupling of optic-flow-sensitive neurons in the fly’s lobula plate are required for a proper course control. This electrical interaction works alongside chemical synapses within the HS-H2 network to control the dynamics and direction of turning behaviours. Our findings reveal how insects use bilateral motion cues for navigation, assigning a new functional significance to the HS-H2 network and suggesting a previously unknown role for gap junctions in non-linear operations.

Species richness and abundance of wild tsetse flies collected from selected human-wildlife-livestock interface in Tanzania

The successful control of tsetse flies largely depends on understanding of the species available and abundance. This study assessed the species richness, abundance and apparent density of wild collected tsetse flies from selected human-wildlife-livestock interface in Tanzania. Seasonal trapping using baited NZI, Pyramidal and Biconical traps was done across selected wards. Traps were set at 200 m apart, emptied after every 24 h then rotated to the next sites after 72 h. Collected flies were identified morphologically and letter confirmed using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Only two Glossina species; Glossina pallidipes (n = 371; 47.32 %) and Glossina morsitans morsitans (n = 413; 52.68 %) were identified. Among them, 96 flies (80 Female, 16 Male) were blood fed; 57(48 Female and 9 Male) G. pallidipes and 39(32 Female and 7 Male) G.m. morsitans. Tsetse fly abundance varied across wards (χ2 = 4.597, df = 1, p = 0.032), villages (χ2 = 9.491, df = 3, p = 0.023), habitats (χ2 = 17.239, df = 2, p < 0.001), months (χ2 = 13.507, df = 3, p = 0.004) and deployed traps (χ2 = 6.348, df = 2, p = 0.04). About 78.82 % of the total catch occurred in Kisaki ward (n = 618; p < 0.001) and 21.17 % (n = 166; p = 0.032) in Bwakila chini. Similarly, 62.37 % of the catch occurred in Mbojoge village. NZI traps (n = 422; 54 %; 4.98 FTD) were most successful traps. Moreover, 78.06 % of the catch occurred in bushed grassland habitat (n = 612; 55.41 FTD) while 5.48 % in farmland (n = 43; 7.17 FTD). This study recommends NZI and Pyramidal traps for tsetse flies control at the interface and proposes wet season as appropriate time for successful trapping of the flies. Finally, it attracts a need for assessing tsetse flies' blood meal sources and the infection status to establish the prevalence to inform existing trypanosome control programs.

Inhibitory activity of some short-chain aliphatic aldehydes on pheromone and ammonium carbonate-mediated attraction in olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae.

The olive fruit fly (OFF), Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), is the main insect pest of olive trees worldwide. Legislation limits to the use of some synthetic larvicidal insecticides is leading to the development of new control options for preventive control of adult flies. In the present study, the biological activity of four short-chain aliphatic aldehydes, namely hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal, heptanal and (E)-2-heptenal, previously reported as repellents to the OFF adults was investigated. Electroantennography (EAG) recordings showed that antennae of OFF males and females are able to perceive the test compounds in a wide range of doses. In field trapping experiments, reservoir-type polypropylene (PP) membrane dispensers loaded with individual compounds did not elicit a significant attraction of OFF males and females. On the contrary, a significant reduction of male catches was noticed when sex pheromone dispensers and PP membrane dispensers, loaded with one of the test compounds, were applied on the same white sticky traps ≈20 cm apart. Likewise, male and female catches in yellow sticky traps baited with ammonium carbonate (AC) dispensers as food attractant were significantly reduced by the presence of PP membrane dispensers of individual aliphatic aldehydes on the same traps. In small plots control trials, solid formulations of the four aldehydes into a bentonite clay support induced a significant reduction of the OFF active infestation mainly when C6 and C7 aldehyde-activated bentonites were used. Short-chain aliphatic aldehydes showed inhibitory effects on sex pheromone and food attractant-mediated attraction of OFF. Results of field trials suggest potential of short-chain aliphatic aldehydes to develop new semiochemical-based OFF control options. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

The biogeographic patterns of the olive fly and its primary symbiont Candidatus Erwinia dacicola across the distribution area of the olive tree.

The olive fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi, 1790), is the major insect pest of olives attacking both cultivated and wild olive. Bactrocera oleae carries a primary and vertically transmitted symbiont, the bacterium Candidatus Erwinia dacicola. As any primary symbiont, it plays an important role in the reproduction and lifespan of the fly. The genetic 16S rRNA diversity of the primary symbiont and the mitochondrial haplotype variation of the insect host were simultaneously examined in 54 olive fly populations. The aim was to unravel the biogeographic patterns of this economically relevant host-bacteria interaction across a wide distribution area. Three symbiont haplotypes were identified. The primary symbiont showed a lower haplotype diversity than that of its host, a characteristic indicative of a long-term interaction. A significant genetic and geographic association between host and primary symbiont was observed, with an East-West genetic differentiation pattern in the Mediterranean basin, coinciding with the historical genetic distribution of the olive tree. The study shows promise, informing and aiding the development of future tools for the control of the olive fly.

Measurement of the Direct Impact of Hematophagous Flies on Feeder Cattle: An Unexpectedly High Potential Economic Impact.

In addition to blood pathogen transmission, insects of the order Diptera affect livestock through visual and contact harassment; blood-feeders are responsible for painful bites and blood despoliation, generating behavioral modifications, anemia, and production losses. Knowledge of their economic impact is a basis for cost-effective control. Here, we measured the global impact of diptera insects by comparing two batches of six feeder cattle, one in the open air and the other protected by a mosquito net. The analytical data were insect density in the open air and, for feeder cattle, tail flick counts, hematocrit values (Ht), feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and live body weight gain (LBWG). Over a period of five months, the results showed significant losses in the LBWG of cattle exposed to insects, estimated at 8.0 ± 1.5 kg/month [2.7; 13.3], with a total loss reaching 40.0 ± 5.5 kg/head. Main diurnal insects were Stomoxys spp. and Musca crassirostris. There was a strong correlation between fly density and diurnal tail flicks. Night trapping and tail flicks showed a potentially important role of mosquitoes to be further explored. The Ht levels of exposed animals were 3-4% lower than those of controls. FCRs indicated that exposed animals needed 33% more dry matter intake/kg of LBWG. An economic assessment showed that dipterans were responsible for a 10-11% loss in LBWG during the main growing period of feeder cattle (10-15 months). A feedlot of 100 calves would register a total loss of USD 16,000 within 5 months, which appears to be an unexpectedly huge loss caused by dipterans. Investing part of this money into fly control would probably be beneficial.

Efficiency of handmade attractants in fruit fly control

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are considered the main pests of fruit crops worldwide, and using traps and attractants are useful tools for their effective monitoring and control. The study's main objective was to evaluate the capacity to capture fruit flies with non-commercially produced attractants and use the Lin and Binns method to evaluate their performance. Five food attractants were evaluated to capture the genera Anastrepha and Ceratitis. The study was carried out in five municipalities of Táchira State, Venezuela, during two semesters, using a completely randomized design with four replications. The experimental unit was represented by a JD EuGo 97 trap, baited with 300 mL of the respective attractant solution. The attractants did not perform equally in all environments, while no variation was observed in the level of trap capture between the two semesters studied. Anastrepha fraterculus was the only species collected at all altitudinal levels, suggesting an adequate capacity to adapt to different environments. The commercial product PedGo plus was the most effective attractant for fly trapping, and it may be an appropriate alternative for use by fruit growers in the control of this pest. Although it was the most efficient attractant in most of the environments studied, molasses + urea proved to be an alternative to replace PedGo plus and Nulure.

Successful yeast microencapsulation of fluralaner and its potential as a larvicide for vector control

Fly control for any species is most effectively implemented in the immature stages when insects can be eliminated before emerging as adults capable of transmitting pathogens or becoming nuisance pests. Yet a limited number of insecticide classes are available for treating larval development sites for dipteran pest species. The most recently introduced class of insecticides in the United States (US) is the isoxazolines, including fluralaner. In the US, fluralaner is currently exclusively labeled for use against ectoparasites in companion animals. However, research has shown that it has a wider effective target range beyond ectoparasites and could be developed as an insecticide for vector control. Here we tested a novel, proprietary, yeast microencapsulated (YME) formulation of fluralaner against the larvae of three pest species: Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), Aedes albopictus Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae), and Culicoides sonorensis Wirth and Jones (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). These species all naturally consume microorganisms as larvae, including yeasts. Fluralaner was successfully microencapsulated in Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. YME fluralaner was reconstituted in water at concentrations of 0.00001–0.1 mg/mL (Aedes and Culicoides) or 1–50 mg/mL (Musca) for use in dose-response assays. For each species, the LC50 at 24 h was estimated using probit analyses. YME fluralaner was highly effective against all species tested (Ae. albopictus LC50 = 0.000077 mg/mL; C. sonorensis LC50 = 0.00067 mg/mL; M. domestica LC50 = 2.58 mg/mL). Additionally, laboratory assays were conducted to determine product reapplication rates using LC50 rates. Reapplication rates to maintain <50 % emergence were five weeks (Ae. albopictus) and greater than eight weeks (C. sonorensis). The results presented here indicate YME fluralaner is a promising candidate for controlling larval insects that naturally feed on detritus, thereby bypassing cuticular penetration barriers and safely delivering the active ingredient to the target species.

Control of the Japanese orange fly, Bactrocera tsuneonis (Diptera: Tephritidae), through several preharvest management practices: establishment of a phytosanitary measure for citrus fruits for export

Control of the Japanese orange fly, Bactrocera tsuneonis (Diptera: Tephritidae), through several preharvest management practices: establishment of a phytosanitary measure for citrus fruits for export

Does biodiversity affect Olive fly populations? Evidence from different understorey treatments

The agricultural industry is intensifying production methods to increase crop yields. Olive cultivation, the prevalent permanent crop in Europe and the Mediterranean area, involves intense practices with heavy agrochemical use. This significantly impacts agroecosystem biodiversity and its ecosystem services. In this study, we explore how biodiversity influences the adult olive fly (Bactrocera oleae (Rossi)) population in Lesvos Island, Greece, under different understorey management practices in olive groves. Our findings show that increased plant and arthropod abundance and diversity negatively affect the olive fly. The results suggest that maintaining undisturbed plant cover enhances olive grove biodiversity, ecosystem services, and biological control of the olive fly. Moreover, this practice is in line with Integrated Pest Management principles and Conservation Biological Control approach.

Quantitative proteomics reveals significant variation in host responses of cattle with differing buffalo fly susceptibility.

Control of buffalo flies (Haematobia irritans exigua, BFs) relies mainly on chemical methods; however, resistance to insecticides is widespread in BF populations. Breeding for resistance to BFs represents a possible alternative, but direct phenotyping of animals is laborious and often inaccurate. The availability of reliable diagnostic biomarker(s) to identify low BF carrier cattle would facilitate rapid and accurate selection for genetic improvement. However, limited information is available regarding differences amongst cattle in host responses to BF infestation. This study investigated the variation in Brangus cattle serum proteomic profiles before (naïve) and after peak BF exposure, in low (LF) and high BF burden (HF) cattle. Cattle were phenotyped for susceptibility based on BF counts on multiple dates using visual and photographic techniques. The relative abundance of serum proteins in cattle before and after exposure to BFs was analysed using sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion mass spectrometry (SWATH-MS). Exposure to BFs elicited similar responses in HF and LF cattle, with 79 and 70 proteins, respectively, showing significantly different abundances post exposure as compared to their relevant naïve groups. The comparison of serum samples from naïve HF and LF cattle identified 44 significantly differentially abundant (DA) proteins, while 37 significantly DA proteins were identified from the comparison between HF and LF cattle post-exposure to BFs. Proteins with higher abundance in naïve LF cattle were enriched in blood coagulation mechanisms that were sustained after exposure to BFs. Strong immune response mechanisms were also identified in naïve LF cattle, whereas these responses developed in HF cattle only after exposure to BF. High BF cattle also showed active anticoagulation mechanisms in response to BF exposure, including downregulation of coagulation factor IX and upregulation of antithrombin-III, which might facilitate BF feeding. Underlying differences in the abundance of proteins related to blood coagulation and immune response pathways could potentially provide indirect indicators of susceptibility to BF infestation and biomarkers for selecting more BF-resistant cattle.

Gambaran Kepadatan Dan Identifikasi Lalat (Diptera) Di Pasar Waiheru Perumnas Kecamatan Baguala Kota Ambon

Flies are vectors for disease transmission, especially mechanically and through their vomit and feces. Items, especially food, are usually contaminated by human feces, rubbish, the saliva of sick people, scars from animal carcasses and other things that are covered in flies. Flies can throw feces on food so that the food becomes contaminated with fly eggs and larvae. Disruption of comfort, eyesore, itching of the skin, causing discomfort, decreased appetite. To determine the density and identification of flies in the Waiheru Perumnas market, Baguala District, Ambon City. Type of descriptive research that describes a condition based on observation and examination of the Ambon Environmental Health Engineering Center (BTKL) Laboratory. The aim of descriptive research is to describe the density and identification of flies in the Waiheru Perumnas market, Baguala District, Ambon City. Measuring the density of flies in the Waiheru Perumnas market, Baguala District, Ambon City is based on 3 points, 10 measurements at each point in the morning, at the first point (los fish) amounted to 87 flies, at point II (vegetable stall there were 55 flies and at point III (fruit stall) there were 45 flies. Identification of fly types resulted in 3 types of flies identified, namely Musca Domestica (house fly), Cliphora Sp (green flies) and Sarcophaga (meat flies). The density of flies in the Waiheru Perumnas market, Baguala District, Ambon City, based on the installation of fly grills based on the 10 highest points, was 187 flies and at the 5 highest points was 134 flies with 23 flies caught in the fly trap. From the results obtained, it can be seen that the density of flies is very high so it is necessary to deal with fly breeding sites and fly control measures.

Compliance of private ventilated improved pit latrines to odour and fly control guidelines: A technical audit in selected regions of Ghana

The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine offers a promising route to safely managed sanitation to many households in developing countries. However, some technical guidelines must be followed in order to realise the technology's advantage of odour and fly nuisance control. This study sought to audit private VIP latrines in selected regions of Ghana to assess their compliance to conventional technical guidelines and to understand the major factors that influence the latrine designs. An inspection checklist was developed to assess 296 private VIP latrines in the Central, Ashanti and Northern Regions of Ghana while semi-structured interviews were conducted among the latrine owners to enquire the factors that influenced the designs of their latrines. The results show that provision of a window in the superstructure (86 %), and the avoidance of an insect screen in the window(s) (77 %) were the most complied guidelines. The use of 150 mm diameter vent pipe was the least satisfied guideline (5 %). On the average, a latrine satisfied about half (3.6) of the technical guidelines that were assessed. The decision or advice of local artisans is the most influential factor in the design of the latrines. Cost was the least mentioned factor cited by the latrine owners. There is the need to establish information desks at the various Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to guide prospective owners on the proper design and construction of the VIP latrine. In addition, toilet construction should be incorporated in the curriculum for the basic training of building and construction students in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions in Ghana. Further research is required to ascertain the basis of the decisions of local artisans and the potential impact of the use of accessories that are ‘borrowed’ from the WC toilet on odour and fly control in the latrine.

Exploration of the potential of a boosted sterile insect technique to control fruit flies in mango orchards.

An innovative version of the sterile insect technique (SIT) for pest control, called boosted SIT, relies on the use of sterile males coated with a biocide to control a target wild pest population of the same species. The objective of the present study was to assess the relevance of such technology to control the fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis and fruit losses in mango orchards using. An agent-based simulation model named BOOSTIT was used to explore the reduction of fruit losses thank to sterile male fruit flies control and economic benefits according to different strategies of sterile male release. The simulation considered a landscape of 30.25 ha made up of four mango orchards. The SIT and the boosted SIT reduced fruit losses when releases were made before the mango fruiting period. According to model simulations, releases should be performed at least seven times at 2-week intervals and with a sterile/wild male ratio of at least 10:1. Considering the benefit/cost ratio (BCR), few releases should be done with a late start date. The BCR showed economic gains from the two control methods, the number of saved fruits and BCR being higher for SIT. Our simulations showed that SIT would have better results than the boosted SIT to contribute to an effective control of Bactrocera dorsalis at the scale of a small landscape. We highlight the need for laboratory studies of other types of pathogen to find a suitable one with higher incubation time and lower cost. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Lethal, Sublethal, and Offspring Effects of Fluralaner and Dinotefuran on Three Species of Bactrocera Fruit Flies.

Fruit flies cause substantial economic damage, and their management relies primarily on chemical insecticides. However, pesticide resistance has been reported in several fruit fly species, the mitigation of which is crucial to enhancing fruit fly control. Here, we assess the toxicity of a novel insecticide (fluralaner) and a common insecticide (dinotefuran) against three fruit fly species, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), and Bactrocera tau (Walker). Both pesticides exhibit robust lethal and sublethal effects against all three fruit fly species, with fluralaner being more potent. Fluralaner and dinotefuran suppress the reproductive capacities and survival rates of fruit flies. However, at the 50% lethal concentration, fluralaner stimulates the reproductive capacity of B. dorsalis and the survival rate of B. tau. Fluralaner also causes significant transgenerational effects, impacting the offspring hatching rate of B. cucurbitae and B. tau and reducing the proportion of female offspring. Thus, both pesticides exhibit high potential for controlling fruit flies. However, their application should be tailored according to species variations and the diverse effects they may induce. Collectively, the findings of this study outline the sublethal effects of two insecticides against fruit flies, helping to optimize their application to ensure the effective management of insecticide resistance.

Hessian Fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Management Using Seed Treatments in Winter Wheat1

Abstract The Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), is a potentially severe pest of wheat, Triticum aestivum L. em Thell, in the southeastern United States. Plant resistance is an effective method to control Hessian fly, but when adapted high-yielding varieties with effective resistance are not available, neonicotinoid insecticide seed treatments may provide an alternative method of control of Hessian fly on susceptible varieties of winter wheat. A series of experiments were conducted to examine the efficacy of neonicotinoid seed treatments for control of Hessian fly in winter wheat. Infestations and immature numbers per tiller were assessed during the vegetative stages in autumn and winter and the wheat reproductive stage during the spring. Both imidacloprid 480FS at 0.31 g active ingredient (a.i.)/kg of seed and clothianidin at 0.39 g a.i./kg or higher rates provided consistent reductions in Hessian fly infestations during autumn and early winter. Lower rates were less effective, and they did not provide consistent reductions in autumn infestations. Thiamethoxam was evaluated at one rate in two experiments and was similar in efficacy to imidacloprid and clothianidin at the same rate. None of the seed treatments provided effective control of spring infestations during the wheat reproductive stage. Imidacloprid and clothianidin at rates of 0.31 g a.i./kg of seed or higher rates had a positive yield response in eight of nine comparisons, with an average increase of 285.9 ± 92.7 kg/ha. Neonicotinoid insecticide seed treatments at higher rates provide a useful method for managing Hessian fly on susceptible varieties of winter wheat.

A review of Musca sorbens (Diptera: Muscidae) and Musca domestica behavior and responses to chemical and visual cues.

Musca flies (Diptera: Muscidae) have been found culpable in the mechanical transmission of several infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans, and helminths, particularly in low-income settings in tropical regions. In large numbers, these flies can negatively impact the health of communities and their livestock through the transmission of pathogens. In some parts of the world, Musca sorbens is of particular importance because it has been linked with the transmission of trachoma, a leading cause of preventable and irreversible blindness or visual impairment caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, but the contribution these flies make to trachoma transmission has not been quantified and even less is known for other pathogens. Current tools for control and monitoring of house flies remain fairly rudimentary and have focused on the use of environmental management, insecticides, traps, and sticky papers. Given that the behaviors of flies are triggered by chemical cues from their environment, monitoring approaches may be improved by focusing on those activities that are associated with nuisance behaviors or with potential pathogen transmission, and there are opportunities to improve fly control by exploiting behaviors toward semiochemicals that act as attractants or repellents. We review current knowledge on the odor and visual cues that affect the behavior of M. sorbens and Musca domestica, with the aim of better understanding how these can be exploited to support disease monitoring and guide the development of more effective control strategies.

Sand Fly larvae are capable of positive chemotaxis: a proof of concept study using Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) as a model species.

Phlebotomine sand flies are important vectors of medical and veterinary importance, transmitting pathogens, such as the Leishmania parasites, responsible for 700,000 to 1 million new cases of leishmaniasis every year. The vast majority of the current sand fly surveillance and control tools are tailored against the adult stages, due to the limited knowledge on the ecology of the larval stages. Since vector control is primarily an ecological problem, an in-depth understanding of the behavior of the target insect pests across all the different life stages of their development is required prior to the development of effective control strategies. It is well known that chemical cues play an important role in insect behavior. While there are numerous studies investigating the behavior of adult sand flies in response to chemical sources, there is currently no information available on the response of their larval stages. In this study, novel bioassays were constructed to investigate the effect of chemical cues (gustatory and olfactory) on the behavior of Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli) sand fly larvae. The larvae exhibited a clear food preference within a few hours of exposure in a 2-choice bioassay, while, also, demonstrated positive chemotaxis in response to volatile stimuli emitted from their preferred food source. Identification of the specific chemical compounds (or the combination thereof) eliciting attractance response to sand fly immature stages could lead to the development of innovative, and targeted (larval-specific) tools for the surveillance, and management of these important public health pests.