Contrast Statements Research Articles

440 The effects of reducing dietary nutrient density after the second dose of GnRF immunization (Improvest) on growth performance and carcass characteristics of gilts and intact males

Abstract Objectives were to determine the effects of reducing dietary nutrient density after the second dose of GnRF immunization (Improvest; Zoetis Inc.) on growth performance and carcass characteristics. Pigs (n = 1,008) were fed in five diet phases during the 102-d grow-finish period. Diets were formulated to meet 100% of recommended SID Lys to net energy established by PIC (2021) for physically castrated (PC) barrows/non-immunized gilts (regular diet), while diets for GnRF-immunized pigs were formulated with 120% SID lysine than PC barrows/ non-immunized gilts (nutrient-dense diet). During diet phase-4 (2 d after the second GnRF analogue dose), SID lysine and vitamins/trace minerals for the nutrient-dense diet were either maintained at 100% or reduced to 95% or 90%. During diet phase-5 (18 d after second GnRF analogue dose), SID lysine and vitamins/trace minerals nutrient-dense diet were either maintained at 100% or reduced to 90% or 80%. The study consisted of six pen replications (21 pigs/pen) of the following eight treatments: CON-NEG: traditional mixed-sex pigs (PC barrows and non-immunized gilts) that received the regular diet; CON-POS: traditional mixed-sex pigs that received the nutrient-dense diet; I-MALE-100: immunized males (I-MALES) that received the nutrient-dense diet with 100% density; I-MALE-95/90: I-MALES that received the nutrient-dense diet with 95% density during diet phase-4 and 90% density during diet phase-5; I-MALE-90/80 I-MALES that received the nutrient-dense diet with 90% density during diet phase-4 and 80% density during diet phase-5; I-FEM-100: immunized females (I-FEM) that received the nutrient-dense diet with 100% density; I-FEM-95/90: I-FEM that received the nutrient-dense diet with 95% density during diet phase-4 and 90% density during diet phase-5; I-FEM-90/80: I-FEM that received the nutrient-dense diet with 90% density during diet phase-4 and 80% density during diet phase-5. Data were analyzed with PROC MIXED of SAS, with pen serving as the experimental unit. In addition, linear effects of diet dilution for I-MALE and I-FEM pigs were tested using contrast statements. There were not significant linear effects of diet dilution for gain:feed or hot carcass weight in either the I-MALE (P > 0.28) or I-FEM (P > 0.78) pigs. For the overall period, gain:feed was improved by 7.4% for I-MALE pigs compared with the CON-NEG pigs and was improved by 1.6% for the I-FEM pigs compared with the CON-NEG pigs. Hot carcass weight was 3.6 kg greater for the I-MALE pigs compared with the CON-NEG pigs and 1.6 kg greater for the I-FEM pigs compared with the CON-NEG pigs. The results would suggest that removing nutrients during the post-second dose period of GnRF immunization does not negatively affect growth performance or carcass characteristics, while both I-MALE and I-FEM pigs are more efficient and heavier when compared with traditional mixed sex pigs.

79 Evaluating the effects of increasing levels of sodium diformate on nursery pig performance

Abstract Organic acids, such as formic acid, are commonly used as acidifiers in swine diets. Forms of formic acid include salts of sodium, calcium, or potassium. Previous research has shown positive results using potassium diformate in swine diets including improved nutrient digestibility, growth performance, and altered gut microbiota. Additionally, recent data has shown increasing levels of sodium diformate improved growth performance in finishing pigs; however, additional data are needed in nursery pigs. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of increasing sodium diformate in nursery diets on growth performance. Weanling barrows [n = 360; DNA 200 × 400; initial body weight (BW) = 5.9 ± 0.06 kg] were used in a 38-d study. At weaning, pigs were randomly assigned to pens with 5 pigs per pen. Each pen was randomly allocated to 1 of 6 treatments in a completely randomized design with 12 replicates per treatment. Dietary treatments were formulated to provide none, 0.40, 0.60, 0.80, 1.00, or 1.20% sodium diformate (Formi NDF, ADDCON, Nordic AS, Porsgrunn, Norway) at the expense of corn. Experimental diets were fed in 3 phases: phase 1 from weaning to d 9, phase 2 from d 9 to 24, and phase 3 from d 24 to 38. Feces was collected on d 9 and 24 from 3 pigs per pen to determine fecal dry matter (DM). All data were analyzed using a linear mixed model with treatment as a fixed effect and barn as a random intercept. Contrast statements were used to evaluate the linear and quadratic dose response to increasing sodium diformate inclusion. All statistical models were fit using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS version 9.4 (Cary, NC). From d 0 to 24 (phase 1 and 2), gain to feed ratio (G:F) increased (linear, P = 0.001) as sodium diformate increased in the diet (Table). However, sodium diformate did not affect (P > 0.10) average daily gain (ADG) or average daily feed intake (ADFI). From d 24 to 38 (phase 3), there was no evidence of differences (P > 0.10) due to increasing sodium diformate for any growth response criteria. For the overall experimental period (d 0 to 38), increasing sodium diformate did not affect (P > 0.10) ADG, ADFI, or G:F. Overall mortality was 0.8% and was not influenced (P > 0.10) by treatment. There was no evidence for differences (P > 0.10) in fecal DM on d 9. However, fecal DM decreased (linear, P < 0.05; quadratic, P = 0.097) as sodium diformate increased in the diet on d 24 with pigs fed 0.40% sodium diformate having the greatest fecal DM. In conclusion, these data suggest increasing levels of sodium diformate has the potential to improve feed efficiency in the early nursey period but did not affect performance in the late nursery.

The standardized ileal digestible lysine-to-net energy ratio in the diets of sows to optimize milk nitrogen retention is dynamic during lactation.

Fifty-two multiparous sows (average parity 3.1 ± 0.9 and initial BW 245.6 ± 32.5kg) were used to evaluate the effects of dietary standardized ileal digestible (SID) Lys-to-net energy (NE) ratios on nitrogen (N) utilization throughout a 24-d lactation period. Sows were randomly assigned to one of five isoenergetic feeding programs that provided equally spaced and increasing SID Lys-to-NE ratios between 2.79 and 5.50g SID Lys/Mcal NE. The feeding programs were generated by blending the two extreme diets in varying proportions and were provided to sows immediately after farrowing (day 1) and until weaning at day 24 ± 1. Nitrogen balances were conducted between days 4 and 7, 12 and 15, and 20 and 23 ± 1 of lactation to represent weeks 1, 2, and 3, respectively, using total urine collection and fecal grab sampling. Contrast statements were used to determine the linear and quadratic effects of increasing Lys-to-NE ratios. Linear and quadratic broken-line and polynomial quadratic (QPM) models were used to determine the optimum dietary Lys-to-NE ratios for N retention in milk. The Bayesian information criterion was used to assess the best fit. Feeding program did not influence sow average daily feed intake (5.8 ± 0.1kg), BW change (-8.2 ± 3.1kg), or change in back fat thickness (-2.6 ± 0.7mm) over the 24-d lactation period, but piglet average daily gain increased with dietary SID Lys-to-NE ratio (linear; P < 0.05). Sow N intake increased with increasing dietary Lys-to-NE ratio in weeks 2 and 3 (linear; P < 0.001). Whole-body N retention (N intake-N output in urine and feces) increased with increasing dietary Lys-to-NE ratio in all weeks (linear; P < 0.05). The N retention in milk tended to increase then decrease with increasing dietary Lys-to-NE ratio in weeks 1 and 2 (quadratic; P = 0.051 and P = 0.081) and the QPM showed optimal milk N retention at 4.28, 4.42, and 4.67g Lys/Mcal NE for weeks 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Maternal N retention (N intake-N output in urine, feces, and milk) decreased and then increased in week 1 (quadratic; P < 0.01) and increased in weeks 2 and 3 (linear; P < 0.01) with increasing dietary Lys-to-NE ratio. Therefore, the SID Lys-to-NE ratio necessary to optimize milk N output is dynamic throughout lactation. A two-diet feeding program could be created to match optimal weekly or daily SID Lys-to-NE ratios, which could lead to improved piglet ADG and body weights at weaning.

Dose-response of inactivated yeast in diets of late gestating and lactating gilts on immunoglobulin transfer and offspring preweaning growth performance.

Fifty gilts (initial body weight [BW] 190.7 ± 4.2kg) were recruited on day 85 of gestation and were used until day 19 of lactation to assess the dose-response of inactivated yeast via hydrolyzation (HY) inclusion on offspring growth and immunoglobulin (Ig) transfer prior to weaning. Gilts were assigned to one of the 5 experimental diets: a control with no HY (HY0) or inclusion of 0.25% (HY0.25), 0.5% (HY0.5), 1.0% (HY1.0), or 1.2% (HY1.2) HY. Gilts were weighed on days 85 and 110 of gestation and days 1 and 19 (weaning) after farrowing. Offspring were weighed on days 1 and 19 of age. On lactation day 1 (approximately 24h after farrowing), colostrum, gilt plasma, and plasma from 2 median BW piglets were collected and on day 19, plasma from each gilt and 2 median BW piglets per litter were collected for determination of Ig concentrations. Contrast statements were used to assess the linear, quadratic, cubic, and quartic effects of HY inclusion. The inclusion of HY had minimal effects on gilt BW or litter characteristics at birth (total number born and born alive, piglet birth weight). Lactation average daily feed intake of the gilts tended to increase then decrease with increasing HY inclusion (quadratic; P = 0.085). Piglet preweaning average daily gain (linear, quadratic, and quartic; P < 0.05) and BW at weaning (quadratic and quartic; P < 0.05) increased then decreased with increasing HY inclusion. On lactation day 1, colostrum and gilt plasma Ig concentrations were not affected by dietary treatment (P > 0.10) but piglet IgA and IgM decreased then increased with HY inclusion level (cubic; P < 0.05). On lactation day 19, piglet plasma IgG tended to increase with HY inclusion (linear; P = 0.099). In summary, increasing HY inclusion in late gestating and lactating gilt diets improved immune transfer in the first 24h after birth and piglet preweaning growth rates and BW at weaning. Therefore, maternal feeding of HY could be used as a strategy to improve offspring immunocompetence and BW at weaning, with possible carryover benefits for the postweaning phase.

Influence of particle size and origin of field peas on apparent ileal digestibility of starch and amino acids and standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids when fed to growing pigs.

The objective was to test the hypothesis that particle size and origin of field peas influence the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch, crude protein (CP), and amino acids (AA) and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA. Three sources of field peas were procured. One source was from the United States and two sources were from Canada. The U.S. source and one of the sources from Canada (i.e., Canada 1) were each divided into two batches and ground to achieve a target particle size of 250 or 450µm, whereas the other source from Canada (i.e., Canada 2) was only ground to a target particle size of 250µm. Each batch of field peas was included in one diet as the only source of AA. An N-free diet was used to determine the basal endogenous losses of CP and AA. Six barrows (initial weight: 50.5kg; SD = 3.7) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were randomly allotted to a 6 × 6 Latin square design with six diets and six 7-d periods. Ileal digesta from pigs were collected for 2d after 5d of adaptation. Data were analyzed using a statistical model that included batch of field peas as the fixed effect and animal and period as the random effects. Contrast statements were used to analyze the effects of particle size, origin, and the interaction between particle size and origin. Results indicated that the AID of starch was increased by reducing the particle size in the U.S. source of field peas, but that was not the case for the Canada 1 source (interaction; P < 0.001). Particle size did not influence the AID of CP or AA, but the Canada 2 source of field peas had greater (P < 0.05) AID of Trp, Ala, Cys, Gly, and Tyr than the field peas from the United States. The SID of CP and AA was also not affected by the particle size of field peas. The SID of CP and Trp was greater (P < 0.05), and the SID of His, Ile, and Thr tended (P < 0.10) to be greater in the Canada 2 source compared with the U.S. source, but no differences between the two Canada sources were observed. In conclusion, a few differences in SID of AA between field peas produced in the United States and peas produced in Canada were observed, but there was no effect on SID of AA of reducing the particle size of field peas from 450 to 250µm, whereas the AID of starch increased by reducing the particle size only in the field peas from the United States.

215 Optimizing the Standardized Ileal Digestible Lys-To-Net Energy Ratio for Nitrogen Utilization of Sows Throughout a 24-Day Lactation Period

Abstract Fifty multiparous sows (average parity 3.7±0.9 and initial BW 245.6±32.5 kg) were used to evaluate the effects of dietary standardized ileal digestible (SID) Lys-to-net energy (NE) ratios on nitrogen utilization throughout a 24-day lactation period. Sows were randomly assigned to one of five isoenergetic feeding programs that provided equally spaced and increasing Lys-to-NE ratios between 2.79 and 5.50 g SID Lys/Mcal NE. The feeding programs were generated by blending the two extreme diets in varying proportions using a precision feeding system and were provided to sows immediately after farrowing (d1) and until weaning at d 24 ± 1. At farrowing, litters were standardized to 12 piglets. Three nitrogen balances were conducted from d 4 to 7±1 (NB1), 12 to 15 ± 1 (NB2), and 20 to 23 ± 1 (NB3) using total urine collection and fecal grab sampling. Contrast statements were used to determine linear and quadratic effects of increasing Lys-to-NE ratios. Linear (LBL) and quadratic (QBL) broken-line and polynomial quadratic (QPM) models were used to determine the optimum dietary Lys-to-NE ratios for N retention. The Bayesian information criterion was used to assess best fit. Feeding program did not influence sow ADFI (5.96 ± 0.19 kg/d), BW change (-5.4 ± 4.1 kg) or change in backfat thickness (-2.0 ± 1.1 mm) over the entire 24-d lactation period, but piglet ADG increased with dietary Lys-to-NE ratio (linear; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Sow N intake increased with dietary Lys-to-NE ratio in NB2 and NB3 (linear; P&amp;lt; 0.001). Nitrogen retention (N intake – N output in urine and feces) increased with dietary Lys-to-NE ratio in all NB (linear; P = 0.05, P &amp;lt; 0.001, and P &amp;lt; 0.001 for NB1 -to 3, respectively). The QPM showed an inflection point at 3.75 g Lys/Mcal NE during NB1 and the QBL model showed break points at 2.87 and 4.83 g Lys/Mcal NE in NB2 and NB3, respectively. Nitrogen retention in milk increased with dietary Lys-to-NE ratio only in NB1 (linear; P &amp;lt; 0.05) and the QPM showed inflection points at 4.31, 4.37, and 4.90 g Lys/Mcal NE for NB1-to-3, respectively. Maternal nitrogen retention (N intake – N output in urine, feces, and milk) decreased and then increased in NB1 (quadratic; P &amp;lt; 0.01) and increased in NB2 and NB3 (linear; P &amp;lt; 0.01) with dietary Lys-to-NE ratio. The QPM showed inflection points at 4.01 and 3.01 g Lys/Mcal NE for NB1 and NB2, respectively, and the QBL model showed a breakpoint at 4.83 g Lys/Mcal NE for NB3. To optimize N retention, feeding programs with a Lys-to-NE ratio between 3.75 and 4.31, 2.87 and 4.37, and 4.83 and 4.90 g SID Lys/Mcal NE should be considered during early, mid, and peak lactation, respectively. Therefore, precision feeding programs can be developed to match the ideal SID Lys-to-NE ratio more closely at different stages of lactation to improve sow performance and reduce nitrogen excretion to the environment.

272 The Effect of Increasing Standardized Ileal Digestible Methionine Intake on Whole-Body Nitrogen Retention and Plasma Amino Acids, Homocysteine, and Glutathione of Gilts in Late Gestation

Abstract Gestating gilts (n = 70; 166 ± 13 kg initial body weight at d 31 of gestation) were used to determine the dietary standardized ileal digestible (SID) Methionine (Met) content required to optimize whole-body nitrogen (N) retention versus the appearance of biomolecules derived via Met metabolism. On d 102 of gestation, gilts were randomly assigned to one of seven dietary treatments that provided between 50 and 150% of estimated SID Met requirements for late gestation gilts (0.10 to 0.30% SID Met). All other indispensable amino acids were supplied at least 20% above estimated requirements (NRC, 2012). A N balance (total urine collection and fecal grab sampling) was conducted for each gilt between days 109 and 112 of gestation, blood samples were collected on day 109 after a 24-h fasting period for analyses of plasma amino acids, homocysteine (Hcys), and reduced glutathione (GSH). Contrast statements were used to determine linear and quadratic effects of dietary SID Met levels. Linear and quadratic broken-line and polynomial quadratic models were used to determine the optimum level of SID Met for whole-body N retention and plasma concentrations of Hcys and GSH. Whole-body N retention increased with increasing dietary Met (linear and quadratic; P &amp;lt; 0.001; Table 1). Plasma concentrations of Hcys increased with increasing dietary Met (linear; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Glutathione tended to decrease and then increase at dietary SID Met greater than 0.20% (quadratic; P = 0.061; Table 2). Plasma glutamine increased with increasing dietary SID Met (linear; P &amp;lt; 0.01). Histidine increased then decreased at dietary SID Met greater than 0.20% (quadratic; P &amp;lt; 0.05), other amino acids were not influenced by dietary treatment. Linear and quadratic broken-line models described a lower breaking point for whole-body N retention, plasma Hcys, and plasma GSH compared with the quadratic polynomial model (0.154% and 0.155% vs. 0.226%, 0.185% and 0.188% vs. 0.328%, and 0.114% and 0.124% vs. 0.224% SID Met, respectively). The Bayesian information criterion (BIC) indicated that the quadratic polynomial model best fit the data versus the linear and quadratic broken-line models for plasma GSH (BIC 317.9 vs. 320.3 and 322.6, respectively; Graphic 1). However, the fits were similar among models for whole-body N retention (BIC 385.2 vs. 384.6 and 386.9, respectively; Graphic 2) and Hcys (BIC 465.5 vs. 465.6 and 467.9, respectively; Graphic 3). Based on the best fit (quadratic polynomial) model 0.226% SID Met is required to optimize whole-body N retention for late gestation gilts which is greater than that recommended by the NRC (2012; 0.20% SID Met). It appears that gilts have further capacity for Met transmethylation since the plasma Hcys breakpoint occurred at a greater dietary SID Met level than for whole-body N retention, though the impact on transsulfuration and remethylation pathways cannot be discounted. Therefore, greater feeding levels of SID Met might be required to maximize both protein and non-protein utilization of Met.

49 The Effect of Increasing Standardized Ileal Digestible Methionine Intake During Lactation on Whole-Body Nitrogen Utilization of Primiparous Sows

Abstract Seventy-five primiparous Yorkshire × Landrace and Yorkshire sows were used to determine the effect of increasing dietary standardized ileal digestible (SID) methionine (Met) intake on whole-body nitrogen (N) utilization during lactation. Upon farrowing (190.2 ± 18.0kg initial body weight), sows were assigned to 1 of 7 dietary SID Met levels (n = ~10), ranging from 70% to 130% of estimated SID Met requirements (0.182 to 0.338% SID Met) via the addition of DL-Met. All other indispensable amino acids were supplied above estimated requirements (1.19% SID lysine, 19.74% crude protein) and additional cysteine was supplied to minimize Met utilization for transsulfuration. Litters were standardized to 13 ± 2 piglets within 48 hours of birth and feed was offered according to a standard feeding curve (NRC, 2012). The N balance periods were between days 5 to 9 (early; N1) and 17 to 21 (Peak; N2) of lactation where total urine was collected via urinary catheters and feces was grab-sampled; titanium dioxide was used as an indigestible marker for determining apparent total tract N digestibility. In N1 and N2, 5.22 and 6.87 kg/d of experimental diet was offered in three equal meals at 0830, 1200, and 1530 h to each sow. Milk N output (g/d) was calculated using estimated milk yield based on litter growth rate and size and analyzed milk N concentration. Contrast statements were used to assess linear and quadratic effects of dietary SID Met level. During N1, N intake increased and then decreased when dietary SID Met content surpassed 0.286% (quadratic; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Similar relationships were observed for total N excretion (urine + fecal N; P &amp;lt; 0.05) resulting in no SID Met effect on N retention (77.1 ± 6.6, -12.5 ± 10.4, and 89.5 ± 8.9 g/d for total, maternal, and true milk protein N retention, respectively) or apparent N utilization efficiency (N retention/N intake×100; 53.2 ± 3.4%). During N2, as SID Met increased, N intake tended to increase (205.5 to 210.2 ± 5.7g/d; linear; P = 0.078), total N excretion tended to decrease (87.3 to 78.7 ± 6.2 g/d; linear; P = 0.087), and total N retention increased (117.9 to 131.4 ± 8.0g/d; linear; P &amp;lt; 0.05). True milk protein N output increased with SID Met (100.3 to 112.5 ± 8.1 g/d; linear; P &amp;lt; 0.05) and maternal N retention decreased and then increased when dietary SID Met content surpassed 0.260% (quadratic; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Apparent N utilization efficiency increased with increasing dietary SID Met (57.5 to 62.5 ± 1.2%; linear; P&amp;lt; 0.05). Therefore, in early lactation, SID Met intake had minimal effects on N utilization, indicating that the requirement for lactating primiparous sows may be equal to or less than 0.182% SID Met. During peak lactation, the supply of SID Met needed to maximize true milk protein N and apparent N utilization efficiency may be greater than 0.338%, which does not take into consideration the non-protein partitioning of dietary Met.

301 Effects of Different Sources and Particle Sizes of Field Peas on Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids and Starch by Growing Pigs

Abstract The objective was to test the hypothesis that particle size and origin influence the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) in field peas. Three sources of field peas were procured. One source was from the U.S. and 2 sources were from Canada. The U.S. source and 1 of the sources from Canada (i.e., Canada 1) were each divided into 2 batches and ground at 200 or 400 µm, whereas the other source from Canada (i.e., Canada 2) was only ground at 200 µm. Each source of field peas was included in one diet as the only source of AA. An N-free diet was used to determine the basal endogenous losses of crude protein (CP) and AA. Barrows (n = 6; initial body weight: 50.5 kg; SD = 3.7) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were randomly allotted to a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 diets and six 7-d periods. Ileal digesta from pigs were collected for 2 days after 5 days of adaptation. The statistical model included source as the fixed effect and animal and period as the random effects. Contrast statements were used to analyze effects of particle size, origin, and the interaction between particle size and origin. Results indicated that the AID of starch was increased by reducing the particle size of the U.S. source, but that was not the case for the Canada 1 source (interaction; P &amp;lt; 0.001; Table 1). No interactions were observed for the SID of CP or AA. The SID of CP and AA was not affected by particle size of field peas. The SID of CP and Trp was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) and the SID of His, Ile, and Thr tended to be greater in the Canada 2 source (P &amp;lt; 0.10) than in the U.S. source. In conclusion, a few differences in the SID of AA in field peas produced in the U.S. or Canada were observed, but there was no effect on SID of AA of reducing the particle size of field peas from 400 to 200 µm. However, the effect of particle size on the AID of starch was greater in field peas from the U.S. compared with field peas from Canada.

149 Effects of Microbial Phytase on Standardized Total Tract Digestibility of Phosphorus in Feed Phosphates Fed to Growing Pigs

Abstract The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of increased microbial phytase on total tract digestibility of P in feed phosphates when fed to growing pigs. A source of monocalcium phosphate (MCP), monosodium phosphate (MSP), and magnesium phosphate (MgP) were procured. Three basal diets were formulated to contain 0, 500, and 4,000 units of microbial phytase (FTU) and no addition of feed phosphates. Nine phosphate-containing diets were formulated by adding each of the 3 feed phosphates and 3 levels of phytase. A P-free diet was formulated to determine the basal endogenous P loss. A total of 117 growing barrows (BW = 15.56 kg; SD = 1.68) were divided into 3 blocks of 39 pigs and allotted to the 13 diets for a total of 9 pigs per diet. During the experiment, pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates equipped with a slatted floor, a feeder, and a nipple drinker. Fecal samples were quantitatively collected for 4 days after 5 days of adaptation using the marker-to-marker approach. Fecal samples were dried and ground before analysis. Fecal samples, feed ingredients, feed phosphates, and diet samples were analyzed for P, Ca, and dry matter and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) were calculated. The ATTD and STTD of P in the 3 feed phosphates were calculated using difference procedure. The statistical model included the level of phytase and the P source as the fixed effects and the random effects of period and replicate within period. Contrast statements were used to test for linear and quadratic effects of increasing phytase in diets and the model included diet as the fixed effect and period and replicate as the random effects. Pig was the experimental unit. Results indicated that the ATTD and STTD of P in all diets increased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) with the inclusion of 500 or 4,000 FTU, but the ATTD and STTD of P in feed phosphates were not affected by the inclusion of phytase (Table 1). This indicates that the increases in ATTD and STTD of P that were observed in the mixed diets when phytase was used were due to the release of P from phytate in corn and soybean meal and not from an increase in digestibility of P in feed phosphates. However, MgP had a lower (P &amp;lt; 0.05) STTD of P than MCP and MSP. In conclusion, microbial phytase does not increase the digestibility of P in MCP, MSP, or MgP, but the digestibility of P in MgP is less than in MCP and MSP.

300 Metabolizable Energy and Amino Acid Digestibility by Growing Pigs may be Reduced if Excessive Heat is Applied During Drying of Corn

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that both drying temperature and drying time affect the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and metabolizable energy (ME) in corn fed to growing pigs. A single source of corn was divided into 11 batches that were dried using a “drying chamber” at 80ºC for 1.5, 3.0, 24, or 48 h or at 130ºC for 1.5, 3.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12, 24, or 48 h. Exp. 1 was designed to determine the concentrations of ME in the 11 batches of corn. Eleven diets based on each batch of corn were formulated. Growing barrows (n = 88; BW = 20.6 ± 1.2 kg) were allotted to the 11 diets in a randomized complete block design with 8 blocks of 11 pigs. Urine and fecal samples were collected for 4-days after 7-days of adaptation. Contrast statements were used to determine effects of temperature and drying time within temperature. Exp. 2 was designed to determine the SID of AA in the 11 batches of corn. An N-free diet and 11 diets that each contained one of the 11 batches of corn as the sole source of AA were formulated. All diets contained 0.40% chromic oxide as an indigestible marker. Twenty-four growing pigs (22.8 ± 5.1 kg) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were allotted to a replicated 12 × 4 Youden square with 12 diets and four 7-day periods in each square. Therefore, there were 8 replicate pigs per diet. Ileal digesta were collected on days 6 and 7 of each 7-days period. Data were analyzed as described for Exp. 1. Results indicated that ME (dry matter basis) was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.01) if corn was dried at 130ºC than at 80ºC (Table 1). The ME (dry-matter basis) increased (quadratic, P &amp;lt; 0.04) with drying time at 80ºC, whereas it decreased at 130°C (quadratic, P &amp;lt; 0.05). The SID of AA did not differ between corn dried at 80°C and 130°C, except that the SID of Lys was less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) if corn was dried at 130°C than at 80°C. The SID of most AA decreased (linear or quadratic, P &amp;lt; 0.05) as time of drying increased at 130°C. In conclusion, the SID of AA and ME in corn are not reduced by extending the time of drying at 80°C. However, the digestibility of AA is reduced if corn is dried at 130°C and the longer the time of drying the more the SID of AA is reduced. Values for ME in corn are increased if corn is dried at 130°C rather than 80°C.

118 Estimating the Net Energy Requirement of Piglets During the First Three Weeks Post-Weaning

Abstract Previous work has reported that piglets may be unable to increase feed intake to meet energy demands in low-energy diets, contrary to growing pigs. Indeed, poor feed intake in piglets occurs mainly during the first three weeks post-weaning. The approach, in this case, has been to increase the energy density of weaner diets to meet energy requirements even at reduced intakes. Studies estimating the net energy (NE) requirement in piglets in the immediate post-weaning period are lacking. Hence the objective of the present study was to evaluate the dietary NE required to optimize growth and feed efficiency in piglets during the first 21 d post-weaning. A total of 360 mixed-sex piglets (6.4 ± 0.24 kg) were housed with three pigs/pen and 24 pens/treatment (n = 24 pens) and were assigned to 1 of 5 dietary treatments in a dose-response arrangement for 21-d. The experimental diets were formulated to contain graded dietary NE levels (2,200, 2,300, 2,400, 2,500, and 2,600 kcal NE/kg). Diets were isonitrogenous and balanced for amino acids with a constant SID Lys/NE ratio of 1.25 across the treatments. The orthogonal polynomial contrast statement was used in a GLM model (PROC GLM, SAS studio) to determine the linear and quadratic effects of increasing dietary NE level on performance parameters. Results for the overall 21-d period indicated that, as dietary NE increased, average daily gain (ADG) increased linearly (P = 0.03). The average daily feed intake (ADFI) was not significantly (P = 0.157) affected by increasing dietary NE. The gain to feed (G:F) improved linearly as dietary NE increased (P = 0.008). Using the linear-breakpoint model (PROC NLIN), the NE estimated to maximize ADG at 305 g/day was 2,475 kcal NE/kg (P = 0.008). Similarly, for maximum G:F of 0.86 g/g, the linear breakpoint model estimated the NE requirement at 2460 kcal/kg (P = 0.02). No breakpoint was estimated for ADFI, but the model tended (P = 0.08) to show a linear increase in ADFI as NE increased. In summary, the results of this study highlight that, during the first three weeks post-weaning, feed intake of piglets may be more controlled by animal factors (e.g., gut capacity) and, to a lesser extent, energy concentration because feed intake was not affected by the dietary NE level in this study. Further, results show that ADG may be a more accurate measure of the impact of NE concentration than ADFI. In conclusion, dietary NE levels between 2,460 to 2,475 kcal/kg during the first three weeks post-weaning may be ideal to maximize growth performance, provided all other nutrients are not limiting.

68 Impact of Increasing Levels of Hybrid Rye on Carcass Characteristics and Product Sensory Evaluation in Grow-Finish Pigs

Abstract The objective of this trial was to determine the effects of hybrid rye (KWS Bono) inclusion rate on lean muscle deposition and product quality of grow-finish pigs. A total of 2,400 barrows and gilts (FAST x PIC 800, 44.9 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments. Diets were corn-soybean based with hybrid rye replacing either 0, 40, 70 or 100% of the corn in the diet. All diets were formulated to meet or exceed the 2012 NRC requirements for all nutrients, and a five-phase feeding program was utilized (44.9 to 56.0, 56.0 to 69.0, 69.0 to 87.9, 87.9 to 107.5, and 107.5 to 111.6 kg). Pigs were weighed and feed disappearance measured at each phase change. Pigs were marketed across three events and (%) Yield, Hot Carcass Weight (HCW), Backfat (BF) and Iodine Value (IV) were measured at the procurement facility. Two primal sections (loins and bellies) were removed from 88 pigs (22/treatment) and sent to the KSU Meat Lab Facility to be cooked or smoked for a trained, sensory panel evaluation. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS, with block as a random effect and pre-planned linear and quadratic contrast statements to analyze the inclusion of hybrid rye. Results indicate that increasing hybrid rye inclusion rate from 0 to 100% decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.001) average market BW, % Yield, HCW, BF and IV all decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.001) as hybrid rye inclusion rate increased (Table 1). The sensory measures for loin chops for Initial Juiciness, Sustained Juiciness, Myofibrillar Tenderness and Overall Tenderness decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) with increasing hybrid rye. Connective Tissue Amount, Pork-Flavor Intensity and Off-Flavor Intensity were not affected (P &amp;gt; 0.10) by dietary treatment. All bacon measures including Texture, Saltiness, Smoke Intensity, Bacon Flavor and Off Flavor were not affected by hybrid rye inclusion (P &amp;gt; 0.10). In summary, while there was a reduction in HCW, BF, % Yield, IV and certain sensory values for loins as hybrid rye increased, there was no effect on any of the bacon variables measured. Therefore, depending on economics, hybrid rye can be an acceptable replacement for corn in finishing pig diets.

247 Hybrid Rye in Commercial Grow-Finish Production Diets: A Case Study

Abstract An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that inclusion of hybrid rye in diets fed to growing-finishing pigs would not affect growth performance. A total of 1,177 pigs (initial body weight: 25.75 ± 0.04 kg) were randomly allotted to one of four dietary treatments with 40 experimental pens, 30 pigs per pen, sex split evenly within pen, and pen as the experimental unit. There were 2 experimental phases with a control diet containing corn (CON) and three diets containing increasing levels of hybrid rye replacing corn (LOW, MOD, or HIGH) formulated within each phase: 10%, 20%, or 30% in phase 1 and 20%, 40% or 50% in phase 2, respectively. Prediction equations were used to calculate net energy values of hybrid rye and diets were formulated to be isocaloric, with the addition of choice white grease (CWG) as hybrid rye was increased in the diet to compensate for predicted energy values. Pigs were provided ad libitum access to feed and water. Pig body weights and feed consumption were recorded on d 14, 28, 42, 56, 70, 84, 90, 100, and 118. Average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and gain:feed were calculated. Data were analyzed with R using linear and quadratic contrast statements to evaluate effects of increasing levels of hybrid rye in the diet, and another contrast statement to compare the control diet with the combined rye dietary treatments. Average daily feed intake was linearly reduced (P ≤ 0.05) if hybrid rye was added to the diet on d 56, 70, 84 and 90, and in the overall experimental period. Average daily gain linearly increased (P ≤ 0.05, d 90, d 100; P ≤ 0.10, d 28) or was not affected by dietary treatment throughout the experiment. Consequently, addition of hybrid rye resulted in a linear increase (P ≤ 0.05) in gain:feed on d 28 and d 90, with a tendency for a linear increase (P ≤ 0.10) also observed on d 70 and d 100. The hybrid rye treatment groups had a greater (P ≤ 0.05; overall; P ≤ 0.10; d 56) gain:feed compared with the corn-based control group, indicating improved efficiency. There were also no differences (P ≥ 0.21) among treatments in the average selling body weight on d 90, d 100, or d 118. However, it is possible that the energy value of hybrid rye was greater than predicted, and that the inclusion of CWG in the diet resulted in improvements in growth performance due to the greater energy content. Therefore, it may be concluded that hybrid rye is a suitable ingredient in swine rations with or without the addition of CWG to improve or maintain feed efficiency and market weight during the growing-finishing phase of production.

106 Using Postbiotic Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Yeast in Gestation and Lactation Diets of Gilts to Improve Immunoglobulin Transfer and Offspring Growth Pre-Weaning

Abstract Gilts [n = 50; initial body weight (BW) 190.7 ± 4.2 kg] were used to determine the optional inclusion level of postbiotic Saccharomyces cerevisiae in late gestation and lactation diets to improve immunoglobulin transfer and piglet growth performance during the suckling period. Gilts were assigned to one of five (n = 10) diets: standard gestation and lactation diets (Y0) or diets with postbiotic yeast included at either 0.25% (Y0.25), 0.5% (Y0.5), 1.0% (Y1), or 1.2% (Y1.2). Diets were fed from d 85 of gestation until weaning (d 21 after farrowing). During gestation gilts were fed 2.6kg/d and feed was offered ad libitum during lactation. Gilt BW was recorded on d 85 and 110 of gestation, and gilt and piglet BW were recorded on d 1 and 21 of lactation. Twenty-four hours after farrowing, plasma was collected from each gilt and two median BW piglets per litter via orbital sinus. Additionally, 50 mL of colostrum was collected in equal parts from all functional teats on the right side. On d 21, plasma samples were collected from each gilt and two median BW piglets per litter. Concentrations of immunoglobulin (Ig) A, G, and M were quantified in plasma and colostrum. Data were analyzed in SAS with treatment as the main effect. Linear, quadratic, and yeast vs. no yeast contrast statements were used to assess responses to dietary inclusion of yeast. Time (minutes) between farrowing (defined as birth of the first piglet, confirmed by video recording) and sampling was used as a covariate for d 1 Ig concentrations. There were no differences in number of piglets born alive (12.5 ± 0.9), birth weight (1.40 ± 0.45kg), or gilt BW change during lactation (-7.98 ± 6.68kg). Lactation average daily feed intake tended to be 14.6% greater for gilts provided yeast versus no yeast (5.11 vs. 4.46 ± 0.31kg, respectively; P = 0.069). At weaning, offspring from Y0.25 fed gilts had greater BW than piglets from Y0- or Y1.2-fed gilts (6.48 vs. 5.66 and 5.82 kg ± 0.16, respectively; P &amp;lt; 0.001), with all other treatments intermediate. On d 1, colostrum and gilt plasma Ig concentrations were unaffected by diets. However, yeast increased piglet plasma concentrations of IgM (linear; P = 0.034) and tended to increase IgA (linear; P=0.093), and total Ig (linear; P = 0.074). On d 21, gilts fed yeast-containing diets tended to have greater plasma IgA (yeast vs. no yeast and quadratic; P = 0.063 and P = 0.076, respectively), but IgM was greater for gilts fed Y0 (yeast vs. no yeast; P &amp;lt; 0.05). On d 21, piglet plasma IgA tended to be greater when gilts were provided yeast-containing diets (yeast vs. no yeast; P = 0.069). Therefore, postbiotic Saccharomyces cerevisiae was effective in improving maternal transfer, with piglet IgA and IgM concentrations increasing linearly with increasing yeast inclusion, while Y0.25 also improved piglet growth performance during the suckling phase.

Influence of shift work on periodontitis according to the occupation group

This study aimed to investigate the effects of shift work on periodontal disease in blue-and white-collar workers and to examine the interaction effects between occupation and work patterns. Data were collected from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey conducted by the Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare for a total of nine years from 2007 to 2015. Participants with missing outcome variables were excluded from the analysis and a total of 32,336 participants were included in the final analysis. Univariable odds ratios (OR) were calculated using a logistic regression model with 95% confidence interval (CI). A multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed using the backward elimination method. The CONTRAST statement was used to analyze the interaction effect between occupation and work patterns. Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that interaction effects are present between the terms, occupational type and work pattern. Crude OR of shift work for periodontitis was 1.269 [CI 1.213–1.327, P < 0.05]. However, following adjustment for multiple confounding factors and the interaction effect term considered, this OR (1.269) increased to 1.381 [CI 1.253–1.523] in white-collar group while it decreased to 1.198 [1.119–1.283] in blue-collar. Crude OR of blue-collar (OR = 3.123, CI 2.972–3.281, P < 0.05) decreased to 1.151 [CI 1.049–1.262] when interaction effect to the shift work was considered. Shift work pattern increases the risk for periodontitis and this adverse effect is greater when white-collar workers are engaged comparing to blue-collar. The result of this study suggests that 24/7 lifestyle of the modern society poses health risks to the relevant people and the potential harm can be greater to white-collar workers.

A common view on broad and contrastive focus events

This paper proposes a cognitive view on sentence stress patterns to discuss focus elements in both broad and narrow focus contexts. The cognitive perspective is based on the hypothesis that prosodic phrases correspond at the cortical level to cognitive binary relations between speech objects of utterances. On this view, cognitive relations are produced by a generic information packaging (IPk) mechanism that pairs constituents with different cognitive functions. At the utterance level, cognitive relations are implemented by prosodic phrases (relations) where different pitch features mark their two functional constituents. Our proposal is to assign sentence stress patterns with corresponding cognitive structural patterns of utterances. One of the two constituents of cognitive and prosodic relations is nuclear and projects its cognitive function to the whole cognitive unit which it belongs to. The paper proposes a nuclear accent analysis by connecting the cognitive functions of constituents with their phonetic/phonological features. The contours analyzed in the paper as hierarchies of cognitive/prosodic relations are selected from those used by Ladd (2008) to exemplify sentence stress patterns in broad focus statements with ascending and descending contours, and in contrastive focus statements. We conclude that, in the new perspective, different cognitive structural patterns can be assigned to contrastive/broad focus statements in different semantic contexts.

Zinc supplementation and ractopamine hydrochloride impact gene expression of zinc transporters in finishing beef steers

Zinc is a trace mineral of interest for optimizing growth in feedlot cattle due to its roles in many physiological functions, including growth. Twenty-four Angus-cross steers (467 ± 13 kg) were used to assess the effects of supplemental Zn and ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) on trace mineral concentrations and muscle gene expression. Four GrowSafe-equipped pens were randomly assigned to treatments (1 pen of six steers/treatment): 0 (CON), 60 (LOW), 120 (MED) or 180 (HI) mg supplemental Zn/kg DM (Availa-Zn, Zinpro). Dietary Zn treatments were initiated on d 0 and RAC supplementation (300 mg·steer·-1·d-1; Actogain45, Zoetis) began on d 53. Blood, liver and muscle (longissimus thoracis) samples were collected from all steers on d -4, 48, and 67. The LOW treatment was removed from gene expression analyses due to &amp;lt; 3 steers being represented for 14 of 22 genes. Data were analyzed using ProcMixed of SAS with the fixed effect of treatment and steer as the experimental unit; orthogonal linear and quadratic contrast statements were used to compare treatments. On d 48 and 67, there were linear and quadratic trends for plasma Zn to be greater in Zn-supplemented steers than CON (P ≤ 0.10). On d 48, there was a tendency for a quadratic decrease on the expression of SLC30A4 (P ≤ 0.07) but no other differences due to treatment. On d 67, several genes involved in Zn transport and storage (MTA1, SLC39A7, SLC39A8, SLC39A9, SLC39A10, SLC39A13) were decreased (P ≤ 0.08), suggesting increased growth influences intracellular Zn trafficking and demands.

КОГНІТИВНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ КОНТРАРГУМЕНТАТИВНИХ ДИСКУРСИВНИХМАРКЕРІВУ СУЧАСНІЙ ІСПАНСЬКІЙ МОВІ

The article deals with Spanish-language contrargumentative discourse markers as a separate class of expressions and words that perform common functions: they connect fragments of discourse, explain what semantic links exist between the text elements, manage the communication process, the interpretation of discourse by the speaker and the recipient, correlate, compare and contrast statements in discourse. These units not only syntactically combine parts of the text, but also explain the cognitive connections between its parts, as well as express the speaker's attitude to what he communicates, or his attitude to the speech addressee. Communicative implicatures can be blocked when the speaker realizes that his information has caused an undesirable effect in the mind of the interlocutor. The ability to understand this is determined as the theory of mind. An analysis of the cognitive functions of Spanish contrargumentative discourse markers reveals that they aim to refute undesired statements or assumptions. Contrargumentative DMs have their own program of functioning, according to which, they block the unwanted implicature that appeared in the previous statement, and on the other hand, they introduce a new block of discourse. With this new block, the communicator completes the information that the recipient should be left with. If we study the differences in the use of contrargumentative DMs, it is necessary to distinguish different shades of use within the limits of the above-mentioned algorithm. Awareness of these differences or shades of sense is usually inherent in native speakers and difficult to convey to those who are learning Spanish as a foreign language.

КОГНІТИВНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ДИСКУРСИВНИХ МАРКЕРІВ, ЩО НАЦІЛЕНІ НА ПЕРЕОФОРМЛЕННЯ ДУМКИ, У СУЧАСНІЙ ІСПАНСЬКІЙ МОВІ

The article deals with Spanish-language discourse markers aimed at reformulating the thought as a separate class of expressions and words that perform common functions: they connect fragments of discourse, explain what semantic links exist between the text elements, manage the communication process, the interpretation of discourse by the speaker and the recipient, correlate, compare and contrast statements in discourse. These units not only syntactically combine parts of the text, but also explain the cognitive connections between its parts, and can be aimed at reformulating the human thought. Communicative implicatures are blocked when the speaker realizes that his information has caused an undesirable effect in the mind of the interlocutor. The ability to understand this is determined as the theory of mind. An analysis of the cognitive functions of Spanish discourse markers aimed at reformulating the thought reveals that they aim to soften undesired statements or claims. DMs aimed at reformulating thought have their own program of functioning, according to which, they change the unwanted implicature that appeared in the previous statement, and on the other hand, they introduce a new block of discourse. With this new block, the communicator completes the information that the recipient should be left with. If we study the differences in the uses of DMs aimed at reformulating the thought, it is necessary to distinguish different shades of use within the limits of the above-mentioned algorithm. Awareness of these differences or shades of sense is usually inherent in native speakers and difficult to convey to those who are learning Spanish as a foreign language.