Continuous Wave Light Detection And Ranging Research Articles

Measuring vibrations using Doppler shifted frequency modulated continuous-wave LIDAR with single photons.

We demonstrate a frequency modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system utilizing a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD) to measure vibrational spectra using reflected signals at the single-photon level. By determining the time-variant Doppler shift of the reflected probe signal, this system successfully reconstructs various audio signals, including pure sinusoidal, multi-tonal, and musical signals, up to 200 Hz, limited by the laser frequency modulation rate and the Nyquist sampling theorem. Additionally, we employ scanning galvo mirrors to perform 3D measurements and map audio signals from different regions in the scanned field of view. The integration of an SNSPD provides significant advantages such as near-unity detection efficiency, low dark count rates, and picosecond timing jitter, enabling measurements of vibrational spectra with as few as 100 detected reflected photons per laser sweep.

HeLiPR: Heterogeneous LiDAR dataset for inter-LiDAR place recognition under spatiotemporal variations

Place recognition is crucial for robot localization and loop closure in simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM). Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), known for its robust sensing capabilities and measurement consistency even in varying illumination conditions, has become pivotal in various fields, surpassing traditional imaging sensors in certain applications. Among various types of LiDAR, spinning LiDARs are widely used, while non-repetitive scanning patterns have recently been utilized in robotics applications. Some LiDARs provide additional measurements such as reflectivity, Near Infrared (NIR), and velocity from Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) LiDARs. Despite these advances, there is a lack of comprehensive datasets reflecting the broad spectrum of LiDAR configurations for place recognition. To tackle this issue, our paper proposes the HeLiPR dataset, curated especially for place recognition with heterogeneous LiDARs, embodying spatiotemporal variations. To the best of our knowledge, the HeLiPR dataset is the first heterogeneous LiDAR dataset supporting inter-LiDAR place recognition with both non-repetitive and spinning LiDARs, accommodating different field of view (FOV)s and varying numbers of rays. The dataset covers diverse environments, from urban cityscapes to high-dynamic freeways, over a month, enhancing adaptability and robustness across scenarios. Notably, HeLiPR dataset includes trajectories parallel to MulRan sequences, making it valuable for research in heterogeneous LiDAR place recognition and long-term studies. The dataset is accessible at https://sites.google.com/view/heliprdataset.

Spatio-spectral 4D coherent ranging using a flutter-wavelength-swept laser

Coherent light detection and ranging (LiDAR), particularly the frequency-modulated continuous-wave LiDAR, is a robust optical imaging technology for measuring long-range distance and velocity in three dimensions (3D). We propose a spatio-spectral coherent LiDAR based on a unique wavelength-swept laser to enable both axial coherent ranging and lateral spatio-spectral beam scanning simultaneously. Instead of the conventional unidirectional wavelength-swept laser, a flutter-wavelength-swept laser (FWSL) successfully decoupled bidirectional wavelength modulation and continuous wavelength sweep, which overcame the measurable distance limited by the sampling process. The decoupled operation in FWSL enabled sequential sampling of flutter-wavelength modulation across its wide spectral bandwidth of 160 nm and, thus, allowed simultaneous distance and velocity measurement over an extended measurable distance. Herein, complete four-dimensional (4D) imaging, combining real-time 3D distance and velocity measurements, was implemented by solid-state beam scanning. An acousto-optic scanner was synchronized to facilitate the other lateral beam scanning, resulting in an optimized solid-state coherent LiDAR system. The proposed spatio-spectral coherent LiDAR system achieved high-resolution coherent ranging over long distances and real-time 4D imaging with a frame rate of 10 Hz, even in challenging environments.

Ambient light immunity of a frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) LiDAR chip.

The interference between a frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and other LiDARs or sunlight was theorized, considering the spatial overlap, frequency overlap, and intensity ratio. It has been concluded that the interference probability between LiDARs can be lower than a safety standard value for autonomous vehicles when the number of the resolution points of a single LiDAR is increased sufficiently and that the interference with incoherent sunlight does not occur. Due to the coherent detection of FMCW, such ambient light immunity is much better than time-of-flight LiDAR. The dependence of the interference on the wavelength range, sweep bandwidth, and sweep period was also observed experimentally using a silicon (Si) photonics FMCW LiDAR chip incorporating slow-light grating beam scanners. It was shown that the interference can be suppressed by increasing the number of resolution points and changing their common parameters moderately. Regarding the contamination of sunlight, unwanted beam shift due to heating was observed, although it will be suppressed simply by wavelength filtering.

Laser Feedback Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave LiDAR and 3-D Imaging

We propose and demonstrate a novel light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system for 3D imaging, combined with laser feedback interferometry (LFI) and frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW). Compared with the conventional FMCW method, the intra-cavity interference between the echo signal and local oscillator enhances the amplitude of the generated beat signal effectively, which improves the sensitivity in weak-signal detection with low photon consumption. The improvement is still effective even with frequency modulation nonlinearity. Besides, the system inherits the advantages of FMCW, possessing the capacity to measure position and velocity simultaneously. In experiments, the validity of distance and velocity measurement is demonstrated, and 3D imaging is realized by employing a pair of beam scanners. With a less than 200 μW probe beam, the system achieves imaging over 65 meters away in various scenes with good fidelity, and the distance resolution is better than 1 mm. A portable prototype is also designed and fabricated. Overall, the proposed system possesses high echo-signal sensitivity, simple structure, and dynamic information availability, which provides a new idea for FMCW-LiDAR optimization for practical applications.

Multi-beam optical phase array for long-range LiDAR and free-space data communication

We present a multi-beam optical fiber phased array (OPA) with simultaneous light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and free-space optical communication (FSO) data transmission functions. The OPA component can achieve a stable phase and a high turning speed. First, the 55-element OPA is phase-locked through the stochastic parallel gradient descent (SPGD) algorithm to maintain the high light intensity of the main beam in real time. The OPA with a 5 × 11 beam array achieved a wide field of view (FOV) of 58°×32°, a single beam array steering angle of0.48°, and a steering speed of 40 MHz. Subsequently, this OPA was used to detect targets within a range of approximately 2 km, and we theoretically verified that two-dimensional coherent frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) LiDAR could extract the target characteristics. In addition, a free-space optical communication link of up to 3 km was also demonstrated, with a data rate of 8 Gbps. The proposed system easily increases the array-to-MHz steering speed and yields a high-power output.

Solid-state FMCW LiDAR with in-fiber beam scanner.

The beam scanner is a predominant part in the light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system to achieve three-dimensional (3D) imaging. The solid-state beam-steering device has emerged as a promising candidate technology for a beam scanner with the advantages of robustness, stability, and high scanning speed. Here we propose a frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) LiDAR system with an in-fiber solid-state beam scanner. A 45° tilted fiber grating (TFG) is first employed to achieve in-fiber solid-state spectral scanning in the LiDAR system. A maximum output efficiency of 93.7% is achieved with proper polarization control. A single-mode fiber is then used to fabricate a 2-cm 45° TFG, which significantly reduces the size and the cost of the beam scanner in the LiDAR system. We experimentally realize 3D imaging of targets placed at a distance of 1.2 m based on our proposed LiDAR system. In addition, the system can achieve a detection distance of 6 m with a ranging precision of 24 mm.

Si photonic crystal optical antenna serial array and frequency-modulated continuous-wave light detection and ranging action

Photonic crystal waveguide slow-light grating emits a free-space optical beam and steers it widely by changing the optical wavelength or waveguide refractive index. In the reverse process, returned light is coupled into the device again. We have proposed to use this optical transmission and reception antenna as a beam scanner for light detection and ranging (LiDAR). Ideally, a large-aperture antenna can narrow the transmission beam and enhance the reception efficiency. Actually, however, the transmission and reception performance is not scalable owing to waveguide loss even though the waveguide is simply lengthened. A serial array configuration in which the waveguide is divided into multiple antennas is effective for mitigating this problem. In this study, we fabricated such a device using Si photonics technology and obtained a small beam divergence of 0.02° at a telecom wavelength. Then, we observed the ranging operation by adding an optical setup of frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) LiDAR and confirmed that the divided antenna device improved the reception intensity by 12 dB. Moreover, we fabricated a FMCW LiDAR chip in which the serial array antennas were integrated in parallel with switch trees and Ge photodiodes and obtained point cloud images by two-dimensional beam scanning.

SPADs and SiPMs Arrays for Long-Range High-Speed Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR).

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a 3D imaging technique, widely used in many applications such as augmented reality, automotive, machine vision, spacecraft navigation and landing. Achieving long-ranges and high-speed, most of all in outdoor applications with strong solar background illumination, are challenging requirements. In the introduction we review different 3D-ranging techniques (stereo-vision, projection with structured light, pulsed-LiDAR, amplitude-modulated continuous-wave LiDAR, frequency-modulated continuous-wave interferometry), illumination schemes (single point and blade scanning, flash-LiDAR) and time-resolved detectors for LiDAR (EM-CCD, I-CCD, APD, SPAD, SiPM). Then, we provide an extensive review of silicon- single photon avalanche diode (SPAD)-based LiDAR detectors (both commercial products and research prototypes) analyzing how each architecture faces the main challenges of LiDAR (i.e., long ranges, centimeter resolution, large field-of-view and high angular resolution, high operation speed, background immunity, eye-safety and multi-camera operation). Recent progresses in 3D stacking technologies provided an important step forward in SPAD array development, allowing to reach smaller pitch, higher pixel count and more complex processing electronics. In the conclusions, we provide some guidelines for the design of next generation SPAD-LiDAR detectors.

FMCW LiDAR System to Reduce Hardware Complexity and Post-Processing Techniques to Improve Distance Resolution.

As the autonomous driving technology develops, research on related sensors is also being actively conducted. One system that is widely used today uses a light source with a wavelength in the 905 nm band for the pulse Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) system. This has the disadvantages of being harmful to the human eye and in making digital signal processing difficult at high sampling rates. The Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) LiDAR system has been proposed as an alternative. However, the FMCW LiDAR is formed with a high beat frequency by a method different from that of the FMCW Radar, which causes a hardware burden on the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) module for interpreting the beat frequency information. In this paper, the FFT module that may occur in the FMCW LiDAR using Digital Down Convert (DDC) technology is extracted at 256 points, which is times smaller than the existing 8192 points, and the beat frequency is 0 to 50 m at 3 cm intervals. As a result of generating and restoring the distance, the performance of 0.03 m Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) compared to the conventional one was confirmed. In this process, the hardware module was directly mounted and verified on the FPGA. In the case of the Simple Threshold-Constant False Alarm Rate (ST-CFAR) provided, the RMSE was measured by generating beat frequencies from 0 to 50 m at 1 cm intervals, and as a result, the result of 0.019 m was confirmed at 0.03 m in the past.

Few-mode frequency-modulated LiDAR receivers.

We present a few-mode frequency-modulated receiver for light detection and ranging (LiDAR). We show that using a few-mode local oscillator (LO) with spatial modes at different frequencies at the receiver can significantly improve the performance of the LiDAR detection range. A preferred receiver architecture features LO modes with unequal frequency separations based on optical orthogonal codes (OOC) to allow range detection via cross correlation. The required signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) LiDAR decreases with the number of LO modes. This receiver can have a potential impact in the area of automotive LiDARs.

Experimental simulation of ranging action using Si photonic crystal modulator and optical antenna.

Time of flight light detection and ranging (LiDAR) has been tested and used as a key device for auto-driving of vehicles. Frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) LiDAR potentially achieves a high sensitivity. In this study, we fabricated and tested two components of FMCW LiDAR based on Si photonics. The ranging action was also experimentally simulated. A Si photonic crystal slow light Mach-Zehnder modulator was driven by linearly frequency-chirped signals to generate quasi-frequency-modulated signal light. Then, the light was inserted into a fiber delay line of 20-320 m. Its output was irradiated to a photonic crystal slow beam steering device that acted as an optical antenna via a free-space transmission. The detected light was mixed with the reference light branched after the modulation in balanced photodiodes. A sufficiently sharp beat spectrum was observed, whose frequency well agreed with that expected for the delay line. The experimental simulation of the FMCW LiDAR, thus, was achieved.

Comparative analysis of Weibull parameters for wind data measured from met-mast and remote sensing techniques

The remote sensing techniques are gaining attention worldwide for the comprehensive assessment of wind resource in flat, complex, and mountainous terrain. This paper presents an attempt to increase the confidence on remote sensing technique to compute Weibull parameters at higher heights for assessment of wind energy resource. The measurement campaign was conducted at Kayathar, Tamil Nadu, India. The 10 min average time series wind speed data for the period of one month (September 2014) were recorded simultaneously at 80 m and 100 m using cup anemometer installed in the proximity of 120 m meteorological mast, Second Wind Triton SODAR (Sound Detection and Ranging) and Continuous-wave wind LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). The data obtained from this measurement were analyzed and Weibull parameters were evaluated using nine different methods. The applicability of nine methods for calculation of Weibull parameters is analyzed based on statistical analysis i.e. Root Mean Square Error Test, Coefficient of Determination, Mean Absolute Percentage Error, and Chi-square Test for both measuring techniques. This study also shows the performance of remote sensing technology by comparing with result obtained from met mast. The outcome of this study is expected to encourage the deployment of remote sensing techniques at Indian sites.

Phase noise limited resolution of coherent LIDAR using widely tunable laser diodes

The spatial resolution of frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) LIDAR (light detection and ranging) using widely (> 500 GHz) tunable laser diodes is calculated, considering the effect of the laser phase noise. It is shown that the resolution ΔR at short distances (R ≤ 10 cm) is determined by the spontaneous emission phase noise. In this regime ΔR/R ⋍ 10−4 … 10−3, which may be significantly smaller than estimated from the laser linewidth. At larger distances the phase noise caused by the carrier injection into the tuning region(s) usually dominates and the resolution can be deduced from the laser linewidth.