Reinforcement Contingencies Research Articles

Emergence of complex dynamics of choice due to repeated exposures to extinction learning

Extinction learning, the process of ceasing an acquired behavior in response to altered reinforcement contingencies, is not only essential for survival in a changing environment, but also plays a fundamental role in the treatment of pathological behaviors. During therapy and other forms of training involving extinction, subjects are typically exposed to several sessions with a similar structure. The effects of this repeated exposure are not well understood. Here, we studied the behavior of pigeons across several sessions of a discrimination-learning task in context A, extinction in context B, and a return to context A to test the context-dependent return of the learned responses (ABA renewal). By focusing on individual learning curves across animals, we uncovered a session-dependent variability of behavior: (1) during extinction, pigeons preferred the unrewarded alternative choice in one-third of the sessions, predominantly during the first one. (2) In later sessions, abrupt transitions of behavior at the onset of context B emerged, and (3) the renewal effect decayed as sessions progressed. We show that the observed results can be parsimoniously accounted for by a computational model based only on associative learning between stimuli and actions. Our work thus demonstrates the critical importance of studying the trial-by-trial dynamics of learning in individual sessions, and the power of “simple” associative learning processes.

Rule-governed behavior: An ongoing RFT-based operant analysis


 Rule-governed behavior is broadly defined as verbal antecedent stimuli that specify dependence relations between stimuli and events. Since its conception, this definition has supported a relatively rich program of research within the experimental analysis of behavior. Specifically, researchers have sought to explore the extent to which verbal rules are involved in operant behavior, both in the basic and applied domains. However, some have highlighted the need for a more complete understanding of what “specification” means in the context of rule-following and behavior analysis. The current article aims to present an operant account of what it means to understand and follow verbal rules, drawing largely on stimulus equivalence, and focusing in particular on a relational frame theory (RFT) perspective. To this end, we provide an overview of an RFT-based operant account of rule-following as it currently stands, and outline a recent program of experimental research that has utilized this approach to explore the complexities involved in rule-following in the face of competing reinforcement contingencies, a phenomenon typically linked to human psychological suffering. Implications for going forward in developing a more complete operant account of rule-governed behavior in both the basic and applied domains are considered.

368 Durability of Tx Response to Zolpidem using a Partial Reinforcement Regimen: Does this strategy require contingent reinforcement?

Abstract Introduction In 2015, partial reinforcement (PR) was assessed as an alternative approach to maintenance therapy with zolpidem. The method being: once a treatment response is obtained over the course of 1-month’s Tx with QHS dosing (Phase-1), Tx response can maintained over time with a PR regimen (Phase-2 [nightly pill/capsule use with 50% of capsules having medication and 50% having only inert filler]). In that study, it was assumed that Phase1 QHS dosing was required 1) to maximize treatment responding and 2) for the conditioning of pharmacologic responses to the medication vehicle (capsule). In the present study, these assumptions were tested by including both QHS and PR arms into Phase-1. Methods In Phase-1 (1 month), subjects were randomized to the QHS or PRS conditions (2QHS:1PRS). In Phase-2 (3 months), the PRS group continued forward without a change in the treatment regimen (variable dose [VD-VD]) and the QHS group was re-randomized to either continued QHS Tx (full dose [FD-FD]) or to PRS Tx [FD-VD]). Both study phases were evaluated for treatment responses rates and for average change in TWT (SL+WASO+EMA). Results 55 subjects (age 61.2+/-8.1, 64% female, & 73% white) were enrolled into Phase-1; 39 were randomized to the QHS condition and 16 to the PRS condition. In Phase-1, 77% (QHS) and 50% (PRS) exhibited treatment responses (p=0.09) where the average change in TWT was similar by group (QHS was -43min [CI -76,-9] and PRS was -76min [CI -138,-14];p=0.35). In Phase-2, 73% (FD-FD), 57% (FD-VD), and 88% (VD-VD) exhibited continued treatment responses (p=0.22) where the average improvement of TWT continued with FD-FD and remained stable for FD-VD and VD-VD (p<0.01). Conclusion These data, while preliminary, suggest that QHS (vs. PRS) dosing produces more treatment responders and similar initial effects on sleep continuity during Phase-1, comparable maintenance of treatment response over time, and continued improvement on sleep continuity during Phase-2. These results suggest that partial reinforcement can maintain effects but cannot allow for the additional clinical gains afforded by continuous treatment. Given this, it may be the case that the partial reinforcement technique could be improved upon by extending phase from 1 to 2–4 months. Support (if any):

Kappa‐Opioid Receptors Modulate Innate and Learned Responses to Positive and Negative Reinforcers

There are few effective and approved treatments for Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) but clinical and preclinical research has shown therapeutic potential for Kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) antagonists. The leading theory of the KOR system's role in SUD posits that chronic substance use augments expression and release of the aversive KOR ligand, dynorphin, which produces a dysphoric state. In this model, upregulation of dynorphin/KOR activity drives continued substance use through a negative reinforcement mechanism whereby substances are consumed to alleviate the negative affective state. While systemic KOR antagonists have been shown to reduce drug consumption in several preclinical models, direct effects on positive and negative reinforcement schedules have not been systematically investigated. In the present study we investigate the effects of systemic antagonism of KORs by nor-Binaltorphimine (NorBNI) on acquisition and maintenance of operant responding reinforced by presentation of sucrose (positive reinforcement) or removal of footshock (negative reinforcement). Based on the prevailing theory that KOR activation is aversive and drives negative reinforcement in addiction, we hypothesized that antagonism of the system would result in decreased responding under the negative reinforcement contingency and have no effect on positive reinforcement. Male C57BL/6J mice received 10 mg/kg intraperitoneal injections of the long-acting KOR antagonist NorBNI or 10 ml/kg saline 24 hours prior to their first session. Animals acquired a discriminated operant response for a positive or negative reinforcer (separate cohorts) whereby a cue light above the active nose-poke (presented on a variable time schedule) served as a discriminative stimulus indicating when a nose-poke would result in the receipt of sucrose or the removal of a series of shocks. Contrary to our hypothesis, mice that received NorBNI showed increased performance during acquisition of both positive and negative reinforcement contingencies compared to saline control mice. These results suggest a novel role of the KOR system in learning that is independent of the valence of the stimulus. We also found differential innate responses to sucrose and footshock prior to operant conditioning suggesting a key role of the system in encoding information about stimuli both aversive and non-aversive. These results call for a reevaluation of the role of KOR signaling in behavioral control and how this system influences drug taking behaviors.

Atypical Reinforcement Learning in Developmental Dyslexia.

According to the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis, abnormalities in corticostriatal pathways could account for the language-related deficits observed in developmental dyslexia. The same neural network has also been implicated in the ability to learn contingencies based on trial and error (i.e., reinforcement learning [RL]). On this basis, the present study tested the assumption that dyslexic individuals would be impaired in RL compared with neurotypicals in two different tasks. In a probabilistic selection task, participants were required to learn reinforcement contingencies based on probabilistic feedback. In an implicit transitive inference task, participants were also required to base their decisions on reinforcement histories, but feedback was deterministic and stimulus pairs were partially overlapping, such that participants were required to learn hierarchical relations. Across tasks, results revealed that although the ability to learn from positive/negative feedback did not differ between the two groups, the learning of reinforcement contingencies was poorer in the dyslexia group compared with the neurotypicals group. Furthermore, in novel test pairs where previously learned information was presented in new combinations, dyslexic individuals performed similarly to neurotypicals. Taken together, these results suggest that learning of reinforcement contingencies occurs less robustly in individuals with developmental dyslexia. Inferences for the neuro-cognitive mechanisms of developmental dyslexia are discussed.

Self-Regulation Failure? The Influence Mechanism of Leader Reward Omission on Employee Deviant Behavior.

Contingent reinforcement behavior is generally regarded as one of the key elements of being a “good” leader, yet the question of what happens when this behavior is absent has received little attention in past empirical research. Drawing upon self-regulation theory, we develop and test a model that specifies the effects of leader reward omission on employes’ deviant behavior. Using the data of 230 workers from two manufacturing companies located in South China collected across three time points, we find that leader reward omission is positively associated with deviant behavior. Moreover, the indirect effects of leader reward omission on employes’ deviant behavior are mediated by moral disengagement. Our study also reveals that Machiavellianism can aggravate the positive effect of leader reward omission on moral disengagement, and subsequently exacerbate the indirect effect on employes’ deviant behavior. Taken together, our findings reveal the consequences of leader reward omission, and the importance of examining subordinate self-regulation under the lack of positive reinforcement.

Assessing reinforcing versus aversive consequences in a real-time secondhand smoke intervention.

Few studies have examined the relative effectiveness of reinforcing versus aversive consequences at changing behavior in real-world environments. Real-time sensing devices makes it easier to investigate such questions, offering the potential to improve both intervention outcomes and theory. This research aims to describe the development of a real-time, operant theory-based secondhand smoke (SHS) intervention and compare the efficacy of aversive versus aversive plus reinforcement contingency systems. Indoor air particle monitors were placed in the households of 253 smokers for approximately three months. Participants were assigned to a measurement-only control group (N = 129) or one of the following groups: 1.) aversive only (AO, N = 71), with aversive audio/visual consequences triggered by the detection of elevated air particle measurements, or 2.) aversive plus reinforcement (AP, N = 53), with reinforcing consequences contingent on the absence of SHS added to the AO intervention. Residualized change ANCOVA analysis compared particle concentrations over time and across groups. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons were also performed. After controlling for Baseline, Post-Baseline daily particle counts (F = 6.42, p = 0.002), % of time >15,000 counts (F = 7.72, p < 0.001), and daily particle events (F = 4.04, p = 0.02) significantly differed by study group. Nearly all control versus AO/AP pair-wise comparisons were statistically significant. No significant differences were found for AO versus AP groups. The aversive feedback system reduced SHS, but adding reinforcing consequences did not further improve outcomes. The complexity of real-world environments requires the nuances of these two contingency systems continue to be explored, with this study demonstrating that real-time sensing technology can serve as a platform for such research.

Assessment of children's and caregivers' preferences for treatments for escape-maintained problem behavior.

This study assessed children's and caregivers' preferences for various arrangements of negative reinforcement, including differential negative reinforcement of an alternative behavior (DNRA), noncontingent escape (NCE), and escape extinction. In the first treatment comparison, the DNRA and NCE treatments similarly decreased problem behavior, but all 3 children preferred DNRA. By contrast, 3 of 4 caregivers preferred escape extinction, likely due to increased compliance in this condition. In a second treatment comparision with 1 child, a multiple schedule and then a chained schedule were introduced to increase the practically of the initial DNRA treatment. The child continued to prefer the treatment with contingent reinforcement in both comparisons, and his caregivers preferred the chained schedule. Results further support the selection of treatments that include contingent reinforcement, and the evaluation serves as a model for progressing through treatment options until child and caregiver preferences align.

Sufficient conditions for effective psychological treatment of chronic pain: a qualitative comparative analysis.

Chronic pain (CP) is the leading cause of years lived with disability globally. Treatment within Western medicine is often multicomponent; the psychological element of treatment varies, yet the optimal conditions for effective reduction of pain-related outcomes remain unclear. This study used qualitative comparative analysis, a relatively new form of evidence synthesis in the field based on set theory to ascertain configurations of intervention components and processes of psychological treatment of chronic pain in adults that lead to more effective interventions. Data were extracted from 38 studies identified in a concurrent Cochrane review and were then subjected to qualitative comparative analysis. Two analyses were conducted: one to examine what is most effective for reducing disability and one to examine what is most effective for reducing distress. Analysis and comparison of the 10 treatments with best outcomes with the 10 treatments with poorest outcomes showed that interventions using graded exposure, graded exercise or behavioural rehearsal (exposure/activity), and interventions aiming to modify reinforcement contingencies (social/operant) reduced disability levels when either approach was applied but not both. Exposure/activity can improve distress levels when combined with cognitive restructuring, as long as social/operant methods are not included in treatment. Clinical implications of this study suggest that treatment components should not be assumed to be synergistic and provided in a single package.

The ubiquity of social reinforcement: A nudging exploratory study to reduce the overuse of smartphones in social contexts

In this study, we analyze the interaction between smartphones and their users as contingencies of reinforcement underpinning social behavior. We posit the introduction of a nudge: an environmental ...

Treatment Efficacy and Clinical Effectiveness of EEG Neurofeedback as a Personalized and Multimodal Treatment in ADHD: A Critical Review.

PurposeRecent reviews have proposed that scientifically validated standard EEG neurofeedback (NF) protocols are an efficacious and specific treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Here, we review the current evidence for the treatment efficacy and clinical effectiveness of NF in ADHD to investigate whether NF treatment personalization (standard protocols matched to the electrophysiological features of ADHD) and combination with other interventions (psychosocial, sleep hygiene and nutritional advice) might yield superior long-term treatment outcomes relative to non-personalized NF and medication monotreatments.MethodsThe electronic databases PubMed and PsycINFO were systematically searched using our key terms. Of the 38 resulting studies, 11 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and open-label studies were eligible for inclusion. Studies were analyzed for effect sizes and remission rates at the end of treatment and at follow-up. The effects of personalized and multimodal NF treatments were compared to non-personalized NF monotreatments and with two benchmark medication studies.ResultsThe analysis of RCTs indicated that the long-term effects of personalized NF interventions were superior to non-personalized NF and comparable to those of medication alone or in combination with behavioral intervention. The analysis of open-label trials further indicates that the interaction of NF with parental interventions, sleep and nutritional advice might yield superior clinical effectiveness relative to NF and medication monotreatments.ConclusionPersonalized and multimodal NF interventions seem to yield superior treatment efficacy relative to NF alone and superior clinical effectiveness relative to medication. We propose that treatment outcomes may be further enhanced by adjusting NF non-specific factors (eg, reinforcement contingencies) to specific ADHD characteristics (eg, reward sensitivity). Future NF research should focus on the systematic evaluation of the treatment outcomes of personalized and multimodal treatments.

Non-pharmacological interventions for smoking in persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders - A systematic review.

The rates and intensity of tobacco use are higher in persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (PwS) compared to the general population, contributing to increased morbidity and mortality. We aimed to systematically review randomised control trials (RCTs) that used non-pharmacological interventions to reduce or cease tobacco use in PwS. We searched PubMed, EBSCO, ProQuest and PsycINFO for RCTs, published between January 2004 and December 2019, which included adult PwS. Studies providing self-reported or biochemically measured reduction of tobacco use and cessation after a minimum follow-up period of 6 months were included. We used the Cochrane Risk of Bias (ROB) tool for assessing the quality of selected studies. Of the six included trials, two compared non-pharmacological interventions alone while four compared combinations with pharmacological interventions with routine care. The non-pharmacological interventions varied widely. Continuous abstinence and seven days point-prevalence abstinence (7 PPA) were reported in 2 and 4 studies respectively, with one study assessing both. All six trials measured reduction in the number of cigarettes smoked, but only two trials reported significant reductions in intervention groups. No worsening of psychiatric symptoms was reported. Two trials were rated as "low risk", and 4 trials as "some concerns" on the ROB tool. Heterogeneity among trials precluded meta-analysis. Abstinence was significantly higher among groups who were given combination interventions, and intervention groups in studies showed significantly greater or a trend towards reduction in the number of cigarettes smoked than controls. No specific method of non-pharmacological management was conclusively favoured. Reduction in cigarettes smoked seemed to significantly favour or show non-significant trends favouring intervention groups over controls, while abstinence was significantly higher among groups in studies that used specific combination interventions. Combinations of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment were better than non-pharmacological interventions used in isolation, for facilitating abstinence and reduction in cigarettes smoked. Specific interventions such as home visits and contingent reinforcement merit further study. Trials included in this study were conducted in high-income and upper-middle-income countries. Thus, the application of these interventions to low and middle-income countries (LAMICs) needs to be further studied.

Teaching Board Game Play to Young Children With Disabilities

We examined the use of an intervention package consisting of the system of least prompts (SLP), visual schedules, peer models, and contingent reinforcement to teach four children with disabilities to independently play board games and communicate with their typically developing peers. We found the intervention package with individual adaptations was related to increases in independent board game play behaviors. No changes in peer-directed social communication were observed. Our study extends the research on board game play–focused interventions by demonstrating the effectiveness of the intervention package for young children with or at risk for disabilities and their typically developing peers.

Cultural Survival in B. F. Skinner: Possibilities for Conceptual Refinement.

The concept of cultural survival is fundamental when describing the selection processes involved in cultural evolution. However, its application by Skinner was inconsistent. As a result, distinct and sometimes contradictory interpretations regarding what it means for a culture to survive occasionally emerge in the behavior-analytic literature. In this article, we aim to identify the stimuli that prompted Skinner to emit the verbal response “cultural survival.” Our analysis suggests two problems: (a) the concept of cultural survival is used by Skinner to identify both the effects of cultural practices on the physical survival ofmembers of the culture and their effects on the survival of specific sets of social reinforcement contingencies via operant reinforcement, and (b) the concept is applied to two different phenomena—namely, first, the relation between the complete range of social reinforcement contingencies maintained by the human species and the physical survival of humankind, and, second, the relation between specific sets of these contingencies and the physical survival of particular groups. Finally, we argue for the importance of the precise identification of the groups and social contingencies that compose any “culture” submitted to a behavioral analysis.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42822-020-00044-w.

Equivalence relations do exist before they are tested: Confirmatory evidence revealed by EEG measurements.

We examined equivalence-based N400 effects by comparing EEG data from participants with different experiences with equivalence testing. Before a priming task used in EEG measurement, Group 1 was given only matching-to-sample training trials whereas Group 2 was exposed to matching-to-sample training and equivalence probe trials. We asked whether exposure to the reinforcement contingency was sufficient to bring about an N400 outcome that might indicate potentially emergent equivalence relations or if such a response depended on experience with equivalence tests. Results showed robust N400 in both groups. Experience with equivalence tests did not further increase the N400 effects. Our findings add confirmatory evidence that equivalence relations may originate via the reinforcement contingency alone. Furthermore, complementary EEG data collected from priming tasks involving words from natural language showed functional overlap between laboratory-defined equivalence and natural word-based N400 effects.

Reinforcement contingencies of innovative behaviour: antecedent and consequent factors

Reinforcement contingencies of innovative behaviour: antecedent and consequent factors

Reinforcement contingencies of innovative behaviour: antecedent and consequent factors

Reinforcement contingencies of innovative behaviour: antecedent and consequent factors

Lack of effect of dopamine receptor blockade on SKF83959-altered operant behavior in male rats.

Dopamine (DA) is important for the performance of operant behavior as revealed by psychopharmacological studies that manipulate the activity of DA subtype receptors. However, the effects of SKF83959, an atypical DA D1 receptor agonist, on operant behavior and the underlying pharmacological mechanisms remain unclear. The present study sought to determine whether blockade of DA D1- and D2-subtyped receptors would reverse the operant behavior altered by SKF83959. Male rats were trained to respond on either a fixed-interval 30 s (FI30) schedule or a differential reinforcement of low-rate response 10 s (DRL10) schedule, two timing-relevant tasks but with distinct reinforcement contingencies. Pharmacological evaluation was conducted with injection of a selective D1 (or D2) receptor antagonist alone or in combined with SKF83959 (1.0 mg/kg) following a stable baseline of behavioral performance. The results showed that SKF83959 treatment alone significantly disrupted the performance of FI30 and DRL10 behaviors mainly by showing the decreases of the response-related measures, and the distinct profiles of the behavior altered by the drug were manifested by the qualitative analysis of inter-response time data on both tasks. The effects of SKF83959 were not significantly affected/reversed by the pretreatment of either SCH23390 or eticlopride injected at the doses of 0.02 and 0.06 mg/kg; however, a subtle reversal effect was observed in the treatment of low-dose eticlopride. Despite that these results confirm the FI30 and DRL10 behaviors changed by SKF83959, the absence of pharmacological reversal effect by DA receptor antagonist suggests that either D1- or D2-subtyped receptors may not play a critical role in the alteration of timing-relevant operant behavior produced by SKF83959.

5~6岁儿童对反转的负性强化联结的性别差异

5~6岁儿童对反转的负性强化联结的性别差异

Self-Injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: Issues and challenges.

Some monkeys housed in research facilities develop abnormal behavior ranging from stereotypic to the more serious condition of self-injurious behavior (SIB). We initially sought to understand how and why monkeys engaged in SIB and more importantly why only a small percentage of laboratory monkeys, with seemingly similar housing and background, developed this disorder. Of particular importance was the recognition that different pathways might lead to SIB and that strong individual differences would affect the manifestation of this disorder and the response to treatment. We developed a comprehensive plan to identify effective treatment and prevention strategies. We started with characterizing the disorder in terms of prevalence and types of environments in which it was found. We then conducted observations on a cohort of SIB and control monkeys to identify conditions associated with SIB (e.g., disordered sleep) as well as clinical disease states and congenital defects that could be precipitating factors. We examined the environmental events that triggered episodes of SIB in monkeys with the disorder and evaluated three models that might explain the reinforcement contingencies associated with SIB, including tension reduction, self-stimulation, and social communication. Possible treatments for SIB such as environmental enrichment, social housing, and pharmacotherapy were tested by our group and others. To date, no single treatment has been found to abolish SIB, and each of these treatments is impacted by individual differences. To develop possible prevention strategies, we examined colony management and health records to find risk factors for SIB. These risk factors generalized to other facilities, and considerable effort was expended by all behavioral managers at these facilities to reduce early life stress exposure, to minimize the length of individual cage housing by emphasizing pair housing, and to reduce the possible stressfulness of various veterinary/medical procedures by implementing positive reinforcement training.