Formal Learning Contexts Research Articles

Informalno učenje traži svoje mesto u formalnim kontekstima obrazovanja

The modern educational theory, policy and practice share the dominant interest for the formal learning contexts. However, if learning is defined as a transformation of participation in socio-cultural activities within the community, all learning situations become significant. This includes the learning contexts beyond the formal school environment, e.g. informal learning. If learning is defined as a dynamic, undetermined, contextual social construction, responsible for person's transformation but also for modifying the context of learning, various kinds of informal learning situations should be brought into focus. In the present paper, the relationship between learning in two contexts, formal and informal, is investigated. The most relevant aspects of these teachings/learning processes were compared with respect to their potentials and limitations in preparing the developing person for full participation in the society. Since each person transmits all of his/her experiences through learning contexts, the boundaries between these learning environments are not so clear and stable from the perspective of the one who learns. On the other hand, the boundaries are more visible and relevant for different providers of teaching practice. In the second part of the paper, we proposed some directions as to how to bridge the two contexts of learning effectively and in a planned way.

Investigating collective-efficacy in the foreign language classroom

ABSTRACTSelf-efficacy is a well-known individual difference variable within second language acquisition research (SLA), shown to have predictive validity in language learning contexts. Collective-efficacy (CE), a group level construct, has remained relatively untouched by researchers despite its potential importance in formal language learning contexts, where students spend a considerable amount of time interacting and completing tasks in small groups. This paper reports on a mixed-method longitudinal study investigating CE in a tertiary educational context in Japan. A measure of CE was developed and piloted, and a subsequent cohort of students worked in fixed small groups for an academic year, completing the CE measure seven times. Hierarchical linear modelling was used to determine whether CE showed the group-level variance necessary to be considered a group-level construct and to examine growth over time. Results showed that students made gains in CE in the first semester, but that patterns of growth were erratic in semester two. Interviews with students revealed students’ views relating to CE, and reasons for changes that occurred. The implications of the findings are related directly to teachers using groups in the language classroom.

Exploring Students Use of Facebook in Formal Learning Contexts

This qualitative study aims to explore the use of Facebook environment in narrative writing. Data were collected from students’ narrative writing and focus group interview. The essays were analysed based on Spandel Assessment Scale (2005).The findings revealed that eventhough students improved their narrative writing, there was lack of in-depth discussion to construct knowledge. It further proposed that teacher needs to facilitate and guide students as time, space and resources are available online. The students indicated that Facebook was beneficial as it was a convenient and engaging writing platform. Students also pointed the availability of web-resources to enhance their writing.There were more positive experiences and fewer negative experiences. Limitations of the study were also discussed along with suggestions for future research.

Higher-Order Thinking in Foreign Language Learning

A project is being conducted in English as a foreign language (EFL), involving eleventh graders in formal and non-formal learning contexts, in a Portuguese high school.The goal of this study is to examine the impact of cognitive tools and higher-order thinking processes on the learning of EFL and achievement of larger processes oriented to action, involving problem solving, decision-making and creation of new products. YouTube videos emerge as cognitive tools in the process. Final results show major differences concerning learners’ achievements. Learners have developed higher-order processes oriented to action, in particular their ability to learn, to transfer the skills developed to different contexts and apply them effectively in EFL communicative situations. This paper discusses: a) major theories that support the integration of cognitive tools and thinking processes within the curriculum, focussing on the English language learning; b) some of the activities and materials; c) the final findings.

Using social media in formal learning: Investigating learning strategies and satisfaction

ABSTRACTSocial media have been widely adopted by digital natives for learning purposes due to the wealth of educational resources afforded by these platforms. As such, educational researchers and practitioners have been advocating the integration of social media in formal learning. While a majority of research has highlighted the benefits of using social media in formal education, still lacking is research that examines students' learning behaviors and experience with social media. From the perspective of self‐regulated learning, we investigate students' learning strategies in social media, as well as the relationship between using these strategies and students' learning satisfaction. Drawing on a survey of 270 undergraduate and graduate students, we found that in the formal learning context, students employed four types of self‐regulated learning strategies (i.e., goal setting, environment structuring, performance control and self‐evaluation) to achieve effective learning with social media. Among the four strategies, goal setting was most commonly used. Further, a regression analysis revealed that all four types of self‐regulated learning strategies were significantly related to students' learning satisfaction with social media, while goal setting was the most prominent strategy. This article concludes by presenting limitations as well as implications for research and practice.

Social networking affordances for open educational language practice

Open Educational Resources (OER), as openly licensed content free to (re-)use at no cost, are attracting increasing interest from scholars and practitioners for their repurpose value in new educational settings, thus enabling Open Educational Practice (OEP). A topic that is under-explored to date is the role of social networking in OER uptake, affording ways for user groups to socially engage in meaningful learning, and bridging formal and informal learning contexts. This paper critically examines whether and how social networks enable open practice, focusing on the field of language learning and teaching in particular. For the purposes of the study, expert views in response to an open-ended questionnaire on OER/OEP for language education were collected between June and August 2014. The 18 respondents were scholars operating at the crossroads of OER and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Expert views were analyzed through a content analytic framework in line with three dimensions: the value of the social dimension in OEP, social network affordances in OEP and open learning pedagogies. The study examines whether open educational practice for language education can benefit from trends of user engagement through social networks (comprising reputation, recommendation and badging systems), and the potential implications for open language education. It also contributes to an understanding of changes in learning pedagogies afforded by principles of openness.

Introduction: Learning to read, from research to policy and practice

This introduction draws together some of the key points arising from the contributions in this timely double special issue. Learning to read is of public concern because of international measurements in education. Learning to read is seen to be complex; it takes place in formal, nonformal, and informal learning contexts—contexts that involve assemblages of identities and artefacts, open to many other ideological pressures and to power plays. It concludes that there is no one right way to teach reading but that researching the existing reading culture is a necessary first step to teaching.

Loneliness, the search for meaning, and the psychological well-being of economically disadvantaged Chinese adolescents living in Hong Kong: Implications for life skills development programs

Assuming a relational basis of meaning-making, we examined ways in which the search for meaning and loneliness relate to the psychological well-being of economically disadvantaged adolescents. Using a survey with a sample of 366 economically disadvantaged adolescents and 304 non-economically disadvantaged adolescents recruited from 10 schools in Hong Kong, we observed that the search for meaning had a positive association with self-esteem, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction only among economically disadvantaged adolescents, whereas loneliness had a negative association with those indicators of psychological well-being in the entire sample. We also identified an interaction effect between the search for meaning and loneliness on life satisfaction among economically disadvantaged adolescents. Our results partially supported our hypotheses by showing that loneliness and the search for meaning jointly affected the development of economically disadvantaged adolescents, whereas loneliness was a more significant predictor than the search for meaning. Given such functions of the search for meaning and sense of belongingness in the development of young people amid economic hardship, practitioners and educators should initiate meaning- and relationship-oriented life skills programs in the formal and non-formal learning contexts, as well as facilitate young people's search for meaning in the informal learning context.

Opportunities to Learn and Practise English as an L2 in Parent–Child Conversations

This article explores a less formal learning context: interactions between parents and children using English as a second language (L2). In this study, L2-speaking parents were invited to conduct informal interviews at home with their own children about the children’s experiences in local schools. The data indicated that the hybrid role of acting both as a parent and as an L2 teacher in these interactions led to excellent opportunities for the children to learn and practise their L2 competence. Parents initiated and controlled the topics and followed an Initiation–Response–Feedback discourse pattern, teaching new works and phrases, and scaffolding their children’s language use, just as L2 teachers do. At the same time there were also invaluable opportunities for the children to challenge and resist their parents’ ideas, initiate their own views and make jokes due to the more familiar and symmetrical parent–child relationship. The dual role of parent/teacher was associated with a more fluid type of discourse in the end, which created a space for learning. These insights suggest that L2 teachers may wish to explore innovative ways in which home–school partnerships could be better exploited as a resource for learning.

Using the chemistry classroom as the starting point for engaging urban high school students and their families in pro-environmental behaviors

ABSTRACTEvolving mobile technology and the rapid spread of STEM-focused informal learning environments have created a unique opportunity to break through the barriers that have traditionally separated diverse learning contexts such as school, family, and community. Previous research suggest that in a well-designed family learning environment, both parents and children can make significant gains in science knowledge, science skills, and positive attitudes toward science, and academic self-efficacy. Families, Organizations, and Communities Understanding Science, Sustainability, and Service (FOCUSSS) is a design-based research project created to blur the boundaries between formal and informal learning contexts: chemistry classrooms (formal environments) and at-home, local, and museum (informal environments). In doing so, adoption of real-world, pro-environmental behaviors can be promoted to have tangible positive impacts on individuals, families, communities, and the environment. Data from this two-year program support that cutting across contexts does indeed correlate with increased self-efficacy in science and positive changes in pro-environmental behavior. Furthermore, the FOCUSSS design framework appears to be quite robust, delivering consistent results across variations including teacher, grade level, school type (neighborhood, charter, private), and parent education.

‘Well it depends on what you'd call play’: Parent Perspectives on Play in Queensland's Preparatory Year

IN THE CONTEXT OF RECENT education reform, Queensland's Preparatory Year (Prep) is undergoing a period of significant change. The framing of Prep under a new national curriculum reflects a shift from its play-based roots to a formalised, subject-based approach. This shift coincides with suggestions that parents may favour more formalised approaches to teaching and learning in the early years. This paper reports on two studies in which parents were interviewed about their views of play in Prep. Data were analysed thematically, with a focus on themes that parents used to talk about play. While parents broadly valued play, the findings suggest that parent participation greatly influenced their acceptance of play-based learning in the formal learning context of Prep. The findings raise implications for educators in fostering strong parent–teacher partnerships in order to facilitate improved parental understanding and support of play in early childhood programs.

LEXICAL ERRORS IN THE ACQUISITION OF THE LATVIAN LANGUAGE AS THE SECOND LANGUAGE AT PRESCHOOL AGE

The lexical component plays a significant role in the first stages of language acquisition. However, there has been relatively little research into the lexical errors of young second language learners at preschool age. Moreover, the Russophone children’s Latvian language as a second language has not been analyzed in lexical aspect so far. The aim of this study is to investigate types of lexical errors and the reasons for their occurrence. The data on 12 six-seven year old children, who study L2 (Latvian) in a formal language learning context were collected. Children’s speech (using the author’s compiled vocabulary test for identification of productive skills of single-word vocabulary) was recorded on a dictaphone. Errors were identified, classified and tabulated. The findings illustrate three categories of lexical errors: interlingual (L1-transfer), intralingual (L2-influence) and mutual (both L1- and L2-influence) in the oral presentations of the participants. Semantic, morphological, and phonological types of errors featuring in them were identified. The results imply that children (like adults) learning L2 vocabulary use the strategy of LI (Russian) lexical transfer (e. g., borrowing, coinage) to cope with the lexical difficulties imposed by the new vocabulary. Determination of the particular lexical errors, and establishment of the causes that generate them will help the teacher delimitate their approach to Latvian vocabulary teaching. To prevent children’s errors some recommendations are proposed. It is advisable to devise and incorporate special exercises and activities directed to the practice of problematic lexical areas.

Uncovering one trilingual child’s multi-literacies development across informal and formal learning contexts

Due to globalisation and rapid technological change, today’s educators need to help students develop multi-literacy competencies to enable them to function successfully in our culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) and increasingly connected global and digital society. A qualitative, longitudinal case study attempted to uncover the multi-literacies development of one young trilingual child (Korean, English, French), Julie, between the ages of six and eight within a multilingual context. As a teacher-and-researcher who initiated and designed a multi-literacies curriculum for young CLD children in informal learning contexts, in this article, I seek to explore how Julie developed and utilised multimodal modes in and out of literacy curriculum in Montreal, Canada. Drawing on Vygotskian sociocultural theory, findings suggested that: (1) Julie developed her persuasive voices and inner voices through appropriating authoritative voices in a playful manner; and (2) Julie and her family recognised and developed the multi-literacies-related funds of knowledge via informal learning contexts that were not part of the formal curriculum within Julie’s formal learning spaces. The study contributes to the benefits of encouraging informal learning that could challenge and support multi-literacies curricular in formal learning contexts. The article concludes with considerations of implications for future work.

The Role of Instruction on EFL Learners’ use of Complaining- apologising Semantic Formulas

Research in the field of interlanguage pragmatics has highlighted the benefits of implementing instructional treatments in formal learning contexts. On this account, and in an attempt to meet Kasper and Roever's (2005) claims regarding the need to investigate the teachability of different pragmatic aspects, this study focuses on the role of instruction on learners’ use of complaining-apologising formulas in the foreign language setting. Results show the positive effects of engaging learners in the instructional process and an increase in the variety of both complaint and apology strategies in different contrasting scenarios. Finally, ideas for further research are provided.

Foreign langauge instructors' attitudes towards learner autonomy in foreign language learnin

Learner autonomy has been a buzz word in foreign language education in the past decades. Learner autonomy can be defined as the situation in which learners accept the overall responsibility regarding their own learning. In formal learning contexts, teachers are expected to share some instructional responsibilities with students, acquire new roles and lead their students accordingly for the promotion of learner autonomy. The purpose of this study is to determine if there has been a change in the foreign language instructors' attitudes towards learner autonomy and sharing some instructional responsibilities with their students throughout time at Niğde University. It also aims to determine the direction and the possible causes of this change. For this study, trend survey study design was employed. 25 instructors participated the study. Data for these two studies was collected by a questionnaire designed on a 5 point Likert-Scale consisting of 13 main questions. The overall results of the study indicated that foreign language instructors' attitudes towards learner autonomy have changed within time in a positive way. The possible reasons for this change could be the development of the facilities, opportunities for professional development, increase in the awareness regarding the concept, cultural and traditional changes in attitudes towards learning a foreign language.

Student teachers\u2019 discourse about digital technologies and transitions between formal and informal learning contexts

This research is a contribution to issues of digital technology use at the interface of formal and informal learning contexts. The research was conducted in the discourse tradition and investigates Finnish teacher training students’ ‘manners of speaking’ as resources for, and obstacles to, making pedagogical changes in response to the potential of digital technology. Findings revealed that the resources and obstacles associated with transitions between formal and informal learning contexts are concerned with students’ engagement in: (i) linking formal and informal activities, (ii) avoiding uncertainty, and (iii) participating in shared work practices. This research argues that risk taking is an opportunity in making the associated pedagogical changes. Risk taking can be developed in teacher education by critically evaluating how to support students in their use of digital technology at personal, group and cultural levels.

Switching codes in the plurilingual classroom

The English as a foreign language classroom is a plurilingual setting par excellence since it involves at least two languages. However, plurilingual practices such as code-switching and translation have been consistently discouraged in formal learning contexts, based on the belief that keeping languages compartmentalized helps learning, and allowing the simultaneous presence of two (or more) languages favours interference (negative transfer), a lack of learner interest in using the foreign language(s), or a reduction in foreign language exposure. Two specific plurilingual learning strategies will be described here. Pedagogically Based Code-switching and Translation for Other Learning Contexts are means to advance communicative development through language in action (noticing, understanding, using, and monitoring), based chiefly on the notions of ‘translanguaging’ and ‘multi-competence’. We present a rationale for an informed use of code-switching and translation along with tasks that can be easily included in the foreign language syllabus, and reference is made to ongoing research to identify further connections between the two classroom strategies.

Facebook for informal language learning: Perspectives from tertiary language students

This paper investigates the use of Facebook for out-of-class, informal language learning. 190 New Zealand university language students (Chinese, German, French, Japanese and Spanish) completed an anonymous online questionnaire on (1) their perceptions of Facebook as a multilingual environment, (2) their online writing practices and (3) their views on the educational value of their experiences. Findings indicate that language students are using a range of Facebook features to expose themselves to the languages they study (L2) and to communicate in their L2 with native speaker Facebook friends. The use of the social networking site varied according to proficiency-levels of the participants (beginner, intermediate and advanced levels), strength of social ties with native speaker Facebook friends and personal attitudes towards the site. Learning experiences on Facebook were not perceived as useful for the formal language learning context which suggests the need for bridging strategies between informal and formal learning environments.

Approaching geographies of education differANTly

It is only recently that young people's geographies have developed a growing interest in the formal and informal learning contexts of children and youth (e.g. Holloway and Pimlott-Wilson 2012; Kraf...

English

The Bachelor of Popular Music (BPM) program operates in purpose built facilities on the Gold Coast campus of Griffith University (Queensland, Australia). The degree design replicates how musicians progress outside formal learning contexts in an enhanced higher education environment, including self-directed and collaborative learning, participatory assessment, and critical listening as core activities. Graduates are independent musicians, having studied popular music history and analysis, audio production, songwriting and performance, ensuring competence in a broad range of popular music activities. While the structure of the degree remains constant, the content and processes remain fluid in response to the rapid changes in the music industry. Reflecting the increasingly artist-driven nature of the industry itself, student consultation has provided the impetus for many of these changes. The primary goal of the program was, and still is, to produce graduates who are multi-skilled and able to engage effectively with the popular music industry, prepared to adapt to the changes that are characteristic of this dynamic field. This paper documents this process of change over a fifteen-year period, showing how pedagogy can respond to continually changing industry demands.