Total Saponin Content Research Articles

Modules in robust but low-efficiency phyllosphere fungal networks drive saponin accumulation in leaves of different Panax species

BackgroundThe phyllosphere mycobiome plays a crucial role in plant fitness and ecosystem functions. The complex microbial ecological networks (MEN) formed by these fungi remain poorly understood, particularly with regard to their organization strategy and their contributions to plant secondary metabolites such as saponin.ResultsIn this study, we constructed six MENs from leaf epiphytic and endophytic mycobiomes of three Panax species distributed in the northeast and southwest ends of mainland China. Hub nodes were absent in these MENs, which were significantly more complex, robust, and less efficient compared to random graphs (P < 0.05), indicating a hub-independent high-robustness strategy to maintain structural homeostasis. The important roles of specific MEN modules in shaping leaf saponin profiles of each Panax species were proved by multiple machine learning algorithms. Positive regulation modules (PRMs) of total saponin content were further identified, which exhibited more deterministic ecological assembly and comprised of highly connected nodes as well as higher proportion of plant-associated fungal guilds compared to other network members, indicating their tight links with host plant. The significant and direct effects (P < 0.05) of PRMs on total saponin accumulation were validated by well-fitted structural equation models (χ2 < 0.3, P > 0.5). Taxonomic analysis revealed that Pleosporales and Chaetothyriales were significantly overrepresented by positive regulation taxa (PRT) of total saponin content (FDR < 0.05). Across PRT identified in three Panax species, Epicoccum and Coniothyrium were conservatively present, while species-specific taxa such as Agaricales were also found, indicating the conservatism and specificity of plant-fungi interactions associated with leaf saponin accumulation in Panax genus.ConclusionsThese findings provide a foundation for understanding mechanisms maintaining the steady state of phyllosphere mycobiome in healthy plant, and offer clues for engineering phyllosphere mycobiome to improve the accumulation of bioactive secondary metabolites on the basis of network modules.

Anti-inflammatory Activity of Azima tetracantha Root Bark Extract in Rats

Inflammation is associated with many pathological conditions such as arthritis, inflammatory bowel syndrome, cancer, etc. The side effects associated with the long term use of current anti-inflammatory drugs necessitates the need for the development of new drug with fewer side effects. The present study was aimed at evaluating anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of Azima tetracantha root bark, a plant widely used by tribal people and in Siddha medicine for the treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of Azima tetracantha root bark were prepared. Total phenol, flavoid, alkaloid, terpenoid and saponin content were analyzed. The anti-oxidant activity was determined by DPPH assay and total antioxidant capacity. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by carrageenan induced paw edema model in rats. The total phenol and flavonoid contents were higher in methanolic extract compared to aqueous extract. The extracts were found to have anti-oxidant activity and dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in both male and female rats with highest average inhibition at 400 mg/kg. The results confirm the traditional use of this plant against inflammatory disorders and could be source for the development of novel drugs.

Nutritional composition, Phytochemical analysis and Antioxidant capacity of Ethanol extract of Picralima nitida fruit (bark and pulp)

Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) is an African pepper tree known for its medicinal benefits. This paper aims to investigate the nutritional composition, phytochemical analysis, and Antioxidant capacity of Ethanol extract of Picralima nitida fruit (bark and pulp) using standard methods. The proximate analysis of the dried powdered fruit (bark and pulp) had high carbohydrate, crude fiber content, moderate ash content, low moisture content, and low crude fat composition. The metal composition analysis showed the presence of various essential and non-essential elements, with sodium, potassium, and iron having the highest concentrations. The qualitative phytochemical screening showed the presence of saponins, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, phenols, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, and phytosterols in varying concentrations in the ethanol extract. The quantitative phytochemical analysis revealed that the total phenol, total flavonoid, total tannins, proanthocyanidin, and total saponin contents had concentrations of 92.45 mg GAE/g extract, 331.64 mg QE/g extract, 64.89 mg TAE/g extract, 129.00 mg AAE/g extract, and 213.79 mg DE/g extract respectively. The ethanol extract of P. nitida fruits exhibited strong antioxidant activities, with the FRAP assay showing the highest activity, followed by DPPH radical scavenging activities. These findings suggest that P. nitida stem bark has significant potential as a natural source of antioxidants and essential minerals, which could be useful in developing functional foods and nutraceuticals.

Extracting phytocompounds from Mucuna pruriens leaves as potential ruminant feed additives using different solvents

Some secondary metabolites of plants could serve as ruminant feed additives. They primarily preserve protein from rumen breakdown, reduce rumen protozoa population, and decrease methane gas production. The current study aimed to identify the phytocompounds content of extracted Mucuna pruriens leaves using the Microwave-assisted extraction method using three different solvents of methanol 70% (EM), aquadest (EA), and combinations of EM and EA (EK). The phytocompounds were identified by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Some phytocompounds identified in the Mucuna pruriens substances from GC-MS curve proportion area of EM were 10.35% inositol, 3.1% quinazoline, 4.72% anthraquinone, 3.76% Coptisine, 2.06% isoquinoline, 2.18% D-gluconic acid, 2.83% D-Fructose, 3.91% D-glucose, and 4.59% butanedioic acid. The phytocompounds for EK were 17.22% inositol, 6.36% Niclosamide, 1.4% Acetamide, 1.32% Aniline, 55.97% 4-Amino-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofuro[2,3-b] quinoline-3-carbonitrile, 17.22% inositol. Furthermore, 22.73% inositol, 6.55%, ribonoic acid, 5.58%, silanol, 21.27% butanodioic acid, 2.88% Fluoroquinoxaline, 5,31%, glycerol, 1,64%, D- gluconic acid were found in the EA. The EA had high inositol content, the EK had high quinoline content, and the EM showed moderate results for all phytobiotics. The total phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins content significantly differed among the three solvents. The EA yielded the highest concentrations of total phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins, but the lowest concentration of total saponins. In contrast, the EM yielded the lowest total phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins content, but the highest total saponins content. Meanwhile, the EK yielded modest results for all phytocompounds, with values between EA and EM. In conclusion, the methanolic extract of Mucuna pruriens substance had the highest phytocompounds and bioactive potential as ruminant feed additives.

Determination of triterpenoid saponin and polysaccharide content from in vitro cultures of Astragalus mongholicus Bunge

In this study, the efficient micropropagation protocol of Astragalus mongholicus Bunge was established and also triterpenoid saponin and polysaccharide content in ethanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of different samples were determined by using spectrophotometric methods to investigate whether the content of biologically active compounds depends on the stage of development of the plant during in vitro culture. The content of total saponins and polysaccharides in different cultures of A. mongholicus grown in vitro was higher (990 and 505 μg/ml) in ethanol extracted 14-day-old young shoot samples than in 28-day-old propagated shoot samples and rooted shoots.

Volatile Components’ Variation Analysis on Ginseng Stems and Leaves at Different Growth Ages by HS-SPME-GC-MS

Panax ginseng is a famous valuable folk herb, the price of which particularly depends on its cultivation age. Since the classical chemical analysis usually needs to destroy the plants which is not suitable for the old wild ginseng due to the huge cost, in the current study, we employed the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) GC-MS methodology which has the advantage of time-saving, nondestructive, and green to analyze the growth age of ginseng (roots) via determining the volatile components of ginseng stem and leaves (GSLs) combined with metabolic profiles way. 100 mg of finely ground GSL samples (3–7 years) were extracted by a 65 μm PDMS-DVB fiber in the headspace and then analyzed within 20 mins. The content assay of total saponins, crude polysaccharides, and total protein was also included. As a result of GC-MS-based profiling, the orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis’ (OPLS-DA) score plots showed excellent classification of four comparison groups (the 3- and 4-, 3-and 5-, 3- and 6-, and 3- and 7-year-old GSL) with 100% discrimination rate, respectively. 263 common differential variables were gained referring to the VIP and P values. 32 volatile metabolites were identified and showed good age discrimination capacities with an area under the curve (AUC) value of more than 0.8 by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Remarkably, there was one volatile component of sesquiterpenes, 1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2, 6, 6-trimethyl-, which showed an excellent prediction with the AUC value of 1.0 among all the four compared groups, which could be the potential biomarker to distinguish all the four compared groups. The total contents of different growth ages of components of ginseng stems and leaves were distinct. The contents of total protein (4.80 ± 0.27%) and crude polysaccharide (24.15 ± 0.89%) in the 4th year of GSLs were the highest among the five cultivation years. The content of total saponins (4.66 ± 0.38%) in the 5th year of GSLs was the highest. These results could provide a novel reference for the GSLs’ harvest and application periods. Moreover, the current study could also supply a promising way to set up a nondestructive, in situ, and green approach to discriminate the growth age of Panax ginseng rapidly without digging the roots out instead of detecting the VOCs of GSLs.

Agro-morphological and biochemical responses of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd. var: ICBA-Q5) to organic amendments under various salinity conditions.

In the Sahara Desert, due to drought and salinity and poor soil fertility, very limited crop choice is available for the farmers to grow crops. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has shown promising under such conditions in the South of Morocco, a true representative site of Sahara Desert. Soil organic amendments have the potential to minimize negative effects of soil salinity and improve crop production. Thus, this study aimed to elucidate the impact of nine organic amendments on quinoa (var. ICBA-Q5) growth, productivity, and biochemical parameters under saline irrigation water application (4, 12, and 20 dS·m-1). Results of the experiment indicate a significant effect of organic amendments on major agro-morphological and productivity parameters. Biomass and seed yield tends to decrease with the rise of salinity level, and organic amendments have improved productivity compared to the non-treated control. However, salinity stress alleviation was assessed by determining pigments concentration, proline content, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity. Therefore, the action of organic amendments varies from one level of salinity to another. Furthermore, a remarkably significant decrease in total saponin content was reached due to the application of amendments even at high saline conditions (20 dS·m-1). The results demonstrate the possibility of enhancing the productivity of quinoa as an alternative food crop under salinity conditions by using organic amendments and improving the quality of grains (saponin reduction) during the pre-industrialization process.

Identifikasi Senyawa Metabolit Sekunder Pada Rumput Laut Coklat (Sargassum plagyophyllum) Dengan Metode Fraksinasi

Seaweed has potential as a source of bioactive compounds, food and medicine. One of the seaweeds that has the potential to be used for its bioactive compounds is the brown seaweed Sargassum plagyophyllum. Fractionation is a technique of separating and grouping the chemical content of extracts based on their polarity. This study aims to determine the bioactive components (secondary metabolites) of flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids/terpenoids, saponins and phenols qualitatively and quantitatively from the extract of S. plagyophyllum by fractionation method. The research method used was experimental. S. palgyiophyllum was extracted using the fractionation method. The treatment given by different polarity solvents consisted of methanol, was done fractionation with using n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol. Extraction of samples the first used methanol, after that methanol extract was diffracted with n-hexane, ethyl acetate and butanol. Parameter analysis was consisted of phytochemical test (qualitative analysis) and quantitative analysis of total phenol, flavonoid, and saponin content. The results showed that qualitative testing of the secondary metabolites of S. plagyophyllum contained in the methanol extract were steroids/terpenoids, saponins and phenols, the positive hexane fraction contained steroids/terpenoids, saponins, the ethyl acetate fraction positively contained alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids/terpenoids, and saponins. and phenol while the butanol fraction contains steroids/terpenoids, saponins. While quantitative secondary metabolites were tested on the hexane fraction (0.18% saponins), then the ethyl acetate fraction (0.14% flavonoids, 0.11% saponins, 0.12% total phenol) and butanol fraction (0.05% saponins).

EXTRACTION OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM FENUGREEK LEAVES BY MACERATION WITH D-OPTIMAL DESIGN

In this study, optimum extraction conditions of bioactive compounds from fenugreek leaves (Trigonella-foenum graecum L.) were investigated using response surface methodology and the extracts having the highest total phenolic content, total flavonoid compounds, antioxidant activity and total saponin content were achieved. The independent process variables were solvent mixture ratio (water and ethanol, 0-100%), temperature (25-65°C) and sample–solvent ratio (10-50 g/L), and a constant extraction time of 120 minutes was used for all the design points. The experimental study was arranged according to D-optimal combined design and the process conditions were optimized using desirability function approach. Results showed that the extraction of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity were increased at increasing water ratios and temperature and decreasing sample-solvent ratio. Saponins were extracted better when 25% ethanol was used as solvent. The optimum extraction conditions were determined as 100% of water, 49.71°C of temperature, and 10 g/L of sample–solvent ratio.

Linalool as a novel natural factor enhancing ginsenoside production in hairy root cultures of American ginseng

Ginsenosides are triterpenoid saponins, accumulated in root of Panax qiunquefolius. These secondary metabolites have numerous pharmacological properties such as: antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anticancer. They have been found to regulate the functioning of the nervous and endocrine systems, thus maintaining homeostasis. Root harvesting for ginsenoside extraction for pharmaceutical industry destroys the entire plant, limiting its natural occurrence and impacts on wild populations of ginseng. The present study showed that hairy root cultures of P. quinquefolius, after using linalool as elicitor, can increase ginsenoside yield without the use of field-grown plants and independently of the vegetative season. The content of seven ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg1, Re) was determined. We found linalool to stimulate most studied saponin accumulation regardless of exposure time (24 and 72 h). Shorter time of elicitation and 0.1 µM linalool in medium proved to be optimum conditions to obtain the highest total saponin content (29% higher level than that of untreated roots) and Rg-group metabolites (2.28 fold higher amount than untreated roots). Ginsenosides, belonging to protopanaxadiol derivatives, were found to have different dynamics of their content changes depending on linalool concentration. The highest increase in untreated roots was noted for compound Rd. Therefore, elicitation with linalool can be an effective method of enhancing ginsenoside production in P. quinquefolium hairy root cultures cultivated in shake flasks.

Saponin extract from Achyranthes bidentata Blume alleviates disuse-induced muscle atrophy through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe roots of Achyranthes bidentata Blume are one of the regularly used herbal drugs in Chinese medicine, and has been applied for strengthening the muscle and bone for a long time. However, its effect on muscle remains unclear. Aim of the studyThis paper aims to explore the anti-muscle atrophy effect of A. bidentata, and to clarify the possible signaling pathways involved. Materials and methodsThe saponin extract of the roots of A. bidentata (ABSE) was prepared and analyzed, and its activity on myoblast differentiation was assayed with C2C12 cell culture. ABSE was then orally administered at dosage of 35, 70 and 140 mg/kg/day to disuse-induced muscle atrophy mice. The studies on mice body weight and muscle quality were conducted, and Western blot was used for exploring the possible signaling pathways involved in the muscle protective action aided with transcriptome analysis. ResultsThe total saponin content of ABSE was 59.1%. ABSE promoted the C2C12 cells differentiation to myotube in C2C12 differentiation assay. Further study with disuse-induced muscle atrophy mice model demonstrated that ABSE significantly increased muscle fiber diameter as well as the proportion of slow muscle fibers. Possible mechanism study aided with transcriptome analysis revealed that ABSE alleviated muscle atrophy at least through activation of PI3K/Akt pathway in vivo & vitro. ConclusionsThe saponin extract of the root of A. bidentata (ABSE) has a protective effect on muscle atrophy, and showed a considerable potential in prevention and treatment of muscle atrophy.

Effects of dietary wild bitter melon (Momordica charantia var. abbreviate Ser.) extract on glucose and lipid metabolism in HFD/STZ-induced type 2 diabetic rats.

Plant-based extracts to interfere with the onset of diabetes may be a promising approach towards type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is popularly consumed as an edible and medicinal resource with hypoglycemic effect in China. Wild bitter gourd (Momordica Charantia var. abbreviata Ser.) is a variant of bitter gourd, but there are relatively few studies on it. The purpose of the experiment is to first screen out the most effective extraction part of Momordica charantia L. and Momordica Charantia var. abbreviata Ser. through the hypoglycemic activity experiment in vitro, and by using a high-fat and high-sugar diet with STZ-induced diabetic rat model in vivo to explore the possible mechanism of action against diabetes. This study first performed α-glucosidase, PTP1B and lipase activities inhibition experiments on the alcohol and water extracts of Momordica charantia L. and Momordica Charantia var. abbreviata Ser. Sprague Dawley rats were either given normal feed or a high sugar and fat diet for four weeks, followed STZ (25 mg/kg, via i. p.) was given. Rats with fasting blood glucose ≥11.1 mmol/l after one week were deemed to be diabetic, treatments were administered for four weeks, and then blood samples were used to evaluate hematological and biochemical indicators, and liver was removed for post-analysis. The expression levels of p-AMPK, AMPK, p-PI3K, PI3K, p-AKT, AKT, p-GSK3β, GSK3β, p-IRS-1, IRS-1, GLUT2 were determined by Western blot. At the same time, the chemical components was identified by liquid-mass spectrometry. Data showed that the ethanol extract of wild bitter gourd (WBGE) had the best ability to regulate glucose and lipid metabolism in vitro. Therefore, we further investigated the antidiabetic effects of oral consumption of WBGE on high-fat diet (HFD) and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T2DM in SD rats. WBGE effectively reduced blood glucose and lipid levels, alleviated glucose intolerance and insulin resistant. Moreover, WBGE consumption could also inhibited oxidant responses and inflammatory damage. Mechanism studies have shown that WBGE may act by regulating AMPK/PI3K signaling pathway. On the other hand, the content of total phenol, total flavonoids, total saponins and total polysaccharide were measured by UV, 27 compounds were identified by LC-MS. These studies explored the role and mechanism of WBGE in regulating glucose and lipid metabolism, and may support the utilization and further investigation of wild bitter gourd as a dietary intervention strategy to prevent diabetes and related metabolic abnormalities.

LED Light Irradiations Differentially Affect the Physiological Characteristics, Ginsenoside Content, and Expressions of Ginsenoside Biosynthetic Pathway Genes in Panax ginseng

Light is essential for plants and plays a vital role in their growth and development. Light irradiation affects the physiological characteristics and synthesis of secondary metabolites in plants. As a semi-shade perennial plant, Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. is sensitive to changes in the light environment. Different light irradiations significantly affect the secondary metabolic processes of P. ginseng. However, few studies have investigated the changes in ginsenoside content in P. ginseng under different light irradiation conditions. In this study, 3-year-old P. ginseng was cultured under white (CK) light, blue (B) light, red (R) light, green (G) light, and natural light (NL) to explore the effects of light irradiation on the physiological characteristics and ginsenoside secondary metabolism of P. ginseng. The B and CK treatments significantly increased the photosynthetic level in P. ginseng leaves. The total saponin content under blue and red light treatments increased by 28.81% and 21.64%, respectively, compared with the CK treatment. Blue and red light improved the transcription levels of ginsenoside biosynthetic pathway genes. Blue light upregulated the expression of HMGR, SS, SE, DS, CYP716A52, and CYP716A47, and the expression of HMGR, SS, SE, DS, and CYP716A47 under red light treatment was significantly upregulated in P. ginseng roots. Principal component and correlation analyses revealed that the physiological and ecological processes of P. ginseng exhibited different responses to light irradiation. The total saponin content in the roots was positively correlated with the content of protopanaxatriol -type ginsenosides and water use efficiency in leaves. Our study indicates that light conditions can be improved by blue and red light or by blue and red film covering to facilitate the accumulation of saponin during the ecological cultivation of P. ginseng.

Chemical profile and bioactivity of Chilean bean landraces (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a traditional food in Chile. This work aimed to determine the chemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and enzyme inhibition effect of secondary metabolites-enriched extracts (SMEE) of thirteen Chilean bean landraces before and after boiling. The SMEE composition was assessed by HPLC-DAD-MS/MS, and the main compounds were quantified. Forty-three constituents were identified, including procyanidins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and saponins. The chemical profiles, antioxidant and enzyme inhibition towards α-glucosidase allowed the differentiation of the samples into whole beans with lower and high phenolic and saponin contents. Cooking decreases the total phenolics and saponins content but some individual compounds such as ferulic acid and soyasaponins Ba and Bb increases. A significant correlation was found between total phenolics and antioxidant activity. A correlation was observed between some saponins and α-glucosidase inhibition. The bean components might exert a local activity on the intestine preventing oxidation of other nutrients and modulating gastrointestinal enzymes.

Phytochemical screening and isolation of saponin from the leaves of Weigelaflorida (Bunge) A. DC

Species of the Weigela genus, Caprifoliaceae family, are currently used in folk medicine, specifically in Asia. Chemical compounds extracted from species of this plant genus have many strong biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-complementary, immune and cytotoxicity on some cancer cell lines. A qualitative study on the chemical composition of leaves of W. florida (Bunge) A. DC led to an identification of flavonoid, tannin, terpenoid and triterpenoid saponin, whereas cardiac glycoside, alkaloid and steroid were found to be absent. Total saponin content was quantified to be 2.66% (wt%) from the initial sample using the chromatography method. A diglycosidic hederagenin-type triterpenoid saponin was isolated using different chromatographical methods, in combination with 1D and 2D spectroscopic methods and mass spectroscopy (ESI-MS).

Extraction and identification of steroidal saponins from Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua using natural deep eutectic solvent-synergistic quartz sand-assisted extraction method.

In this study, quartz sand with particularly sharp nanoscale edges acted like a nanoscale knife physically cut cells of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua into nanosized particles and was synergized with natural deep eutectic solvent to extract steroidal saponins of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua. The natural deep eutectic solvent (choline chloride-lactic acid)-synergistic quartz sand-assisted extraction was optimized using response surface methodology. The steroidal saponins purified with AB-8 macroporous resin were identified using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-triple time of flight mass spectrometry. The results showed that the experimental total saponins content value (36.97±0.12mg dioscin equivalent/g dry weight) at optimal extraction conditions with a temperature of 68°C, a rotational speed of 20 400rpm, shear time of 4.3min, the liquid-solid ratio of 38ml/g, was close to the maximum possible theoretical value (36.64mg dioscin equivalent/g dry weight). A total of 20 steroidal saponins were identified, among which the content of (25R)-Kingianoside E was the highest (102.66±3.47mg/g). Furthermore, a new steroid saponin (3β,25S)-26-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-22-hydroxyfurost-5-en-3-yl 4-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-β-D-galactopyranoside+Glc was found for the first time. These results revealed that natural deep eutectic solvent-synergistic quartz sand-assisted extraction was an efficient and green method to extract a variety of steroidal saponins.

Tapinanthus dodoneifolius leaf inhibits the activity of carbohydrate digesting enzymes and improves the insulin resistance induced in rats by dexamethasone

BackgroundTapinanthus dodoneifolius is a plant used in traditional African medicine to treat diabetes mellitus. This study aimed to evaluate the preventive antidiabetic potential of the aqueous extract of T. dodoneifolius leaves (AETD) in insulin resistant rats. MethodsA quantitative phytochemical study of AETD was carried out to determine the contents of total phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and saponins. AETD was tested in vitro on the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. Insulin resistance was induced for 10 days by daily subcutaneous injection of dexamethasone (1 mg/kg). One hour before, the rats were divided into 5 groups and treated as follows: group 1 received distilled water (10 mL/kg); group 2 received metformin (40 mg/kg), and groups 3, 4, and 5 were treated with AETD (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg). Body weight, blood sugar, food and water consumption, serum insulin level, lipid profile, and oxidative status were assessed. One-way analysis of variance followed by Turkey's post-test and two-way analysis followed by Bonferroni's post-test were used to analyze univariate and bivariate parameters, respectively. ResultsResults showed that the phenol content of AETD (54.13 ± 0.14 mg GAE/g extract) was higher than that of flavonoids (16.73 ± 0.06 mg GAE/g extract), tannins (12.08 ± 0.07 mg GAE/g extract), and saponins (IC50 = 13.56 ± 0.03 mg DE/g extract). AETD showed a higher inhibitory potential on α-glucosidase activity (IC50 = 191.51 ± 5.63 μg/mL) than on α-amylase activity (IC50 = 1774.90 ± 10.32 μg/mL). AETD (250 and/or 500 mg/kg) prevented drastic loss of body weight and reduced food and water consumption in insulin resistant rats. The levels of blood glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and malondialdehyde were also reduced while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level, reduced glutathion level, and catalase and superoxide dismutase activity increased after administration of AETD (250 and 500 mg/kg) in insulin resistant rats. ConclusionAETD has significant antihyperglycemic, antidyslipidemic, and antioxidant potential, thus it can be used for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications.

Effects of Applying Nitrogen and Potassium on Lilium lancifolium Growth and Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in Bulbs

Lilium lancifolium is a plant resource used as both medicine and food because it is enriched with polysaccharides, polyphenol compounds, and saponins. Increasing the quality of Lilium species is based largely on improvement using methods such as selective breeding and proper fertilization. In this study, we investigated the different responses of L. lancifolium bulbs to treatment with nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) in Hoagland solution. A pot experiment was conducted with four N rates and five K rates under a completely random design. The agronomic traits, N and K contents, and concentrations of active compounds were determined in bulbs, including total phenols, flavonoids, polysaccharides, and saponins. L. lancifolium treated with N and K exhibited increases in the plant height, leaf number, and chlorophyll content compared with the control (N0 + K0). The bulb circumference increased by 17.41% under N2 (609.80 mg L−1) + K2 (523.34 mg L−1) compared with N0 + K0. Individual or combined application of N and K increased the total phenol, flavonoid, and saponin contents, especially under N2 + K3, with the highest increases of 1.87–2.93 times compared with N0 + K0. However, the individual application of N decreased the polysaccharide contents by 2.78–42.04%. Hoagland solution containing 443.24–572.87 mg L−1 N and 573.61–759.16 mg L−1 K is recommended to improve the active contents of bulb components based on regression analysis. Our results demonstrate that the combined application of N and K is important for obtaining high-quality L. lancifolium bulbs.

Ultrasound probe assisted extraction of Paramignya trimera (Oliver) Guillaum root

Xao tam phan (XTP), a Paramignya genus of the Citrus family, is a renowned medicinal plant in Southeast Asian countries, including Vietnam, and is associated with treating cancer, hepatitis, diabetes, and nose infections. Extraction is a key operation in the preparation of XTP extracts rich in phytochemical compounds. Recently, the application of ultrasound has resulted in a large number of successes in the extraction of medicinal plants for improvement in yield and quality of extracts. Until present, ultrasonic-assisted extraction has not been favored for XTP. In this work, the effect of sonication treatment on collecting the extract of total phenolics and saponin from the XTP root was investigated, then the experimental data were analyzed and optimized by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The results indicated that the optimal sonication power, temperature, and time were 200 W, 58°C, and 10 min, respectively. Under those conditions, the total phenolic and saponin contents in the XTP extract were maximized and validated to be 20.70 ± 0.77 mg GAE/g dried matter and 326.30 ± 2.03 mg EE/g dried matter, respectively. For comparison, a higher extraction yield of ultrasound-treated samples, in terms of total phenolics (~ 27%) and total saponin (~ 76%), was found as compared to the untreated ones. In conclusion, the results reveal that the application of ultrasound on xao tam phan root significantly enhanced the phytochemical contents during extraction.

Alternate micro-sprinkler irrigation synergized with organic fertilizer: A sustainable water-fertilizer management technology of improving quality and increasing efficiency in Panax notoginseng production

The yield of Panax notoginseng (BurK.) F. H. Chen in Yunnan Province accounted for more than 90% of China's total yield, but extensive water and fertilizer management restricted improvement of yield, quality, and economic benefits of Panax notoginseng. Therefore, this study tried to propose an adaptive irrigation and fertilizer management strategy for Panax notoginseng production. A two-year (2017 and 2018) rain-shelter cultivation study in Yunnan Province of southwest China was conducted to analyze the influences of irrigation and organic fertilizer application on soil water distribution, root growth, water-fertilizer productivity, quality, and economic benefits of Panax notoginseng in four organic fertilizer application rates [500 (F1), 1000 (F2), 1500 (F3), and 2000 (F4) kg ha−1] combined with three micro-sprinkler irrigation schedules [I1: moderate deficit micro-sprinkler irrigation, (70–75%) θFC; I2: alternate micro-sprinkler irrigation, (70–75%) θFC / (80–85%) θFC; I3: slight deficit micro-sprinkler irrigation, (80–85%) θFC]. The results indicated that the increasing micro-sprinkler irrigation levels enhanced soil water content in 0–40 cm soil layer, but resulted in a reduction irrigation water productivity (IWP). Moreover, the increasing organic fertilizer application significantly led to reduced partial fertilizer productivity (PFP). Under the interaction of micro-sprinkler irrigation schedules and organic fertilizer application in 2017 and 2018, the I2F3 significantly obtained the highest soil water storage (SWS), root hydraulic conductivity, root morphological characteristics, root-shoot ratio, lowest root rot rate (4.68% in 2017 and 6.59% in 2018), largest yield (3614.5 kg ha−1 in 2017 and 3981.5 kg ha−1 in 2018), total saponin content (20.23% in 2017 and 23.28% in 2018), and economic benefits (25.28 × 104 $ ha−1 in 2017 and 32.6 × 104 $ ha−1 in 2018) of Panax notoginseng. Based on the above results, the comprehensive evaluation of five saponin contents and the comprehensive evaluation of the yield, IWP, PFP, economic benefits, and total saponin content of Panax notoginseng were analyzed by using a TOPSIS model in 2017 and 2018. We found that synergistic of alternate micro-sprinkler irrigation [I2, (70–75%) θFC / (80–85%) θFC] and organic fertilizer application (F3, 1500 kg ha−1) could decrease root rot, improve root growth, water-fertilizer productivity, quality, and economic benefits of Panax notoginseng.