Γ-aminobutyric Acid Content Research Articles

The relationship between GABA content and desiccation tolerance at five developmental stages of wheat (Triticum durum) seeds.

Drying wheat (Triticum durum ) seeds within their spikes may improve the seed desiccation tolerance. This study aimed to understand the effect of drying wheat seeds within their spikes on their desiccation tolerance in association with GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) content, malondialdehyde (MDA), the expression of three dehydrin genes (dhn , wcor , dreb ) during seed development. Seeds of wheat variety 'Hourani-Nawawi' were harvested at five developmental stages: (1) milk (ML); (2) soft dough (SD); (3) hard dough (HD); (4) physiological maturity (PM); and (5) harvest maturity (HM) and dried either attached to or detached from their spikes. Drying the seeds attached to their spikes improved desiccation tolerance, speed of germination, and seedling length at ML stage. Before drying (freshly harvested), the seeds harvested at ML and HM had higher GABA than those at SD, HD, and PM. The attached-dried seeds had higher GABA content from ML to PM than at HM, and higher glutamate content at ML, SD, and HD than at the PM stage. Detached-dried seeds had the highest alanine at ML and PM. Attached-dried seeds had lower MDA than detached-dried seeds. Expression of dhn was highest in freshly-harvested and attached-dried seeds at SD. Highest expression of wcor in the attached-dried seeds was detected at SD and HM. Drying the seeds within their spikes increased the expression of dreb gene compared with the freshly-harvested seeds, except at the HD stage. In conclusion, drying the seeds within their spikes enhanced seed germination in association with higher GABA, lower MDA, and higher gene expression.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) mediated biofortification of micronutrients, protein characteristics, and γ-aminobutyric acid in sorghum grown on vertisols in the central clay plains of Sudan

ABSTRACT Hidden hunger and micronutrient deficiencies are critical global challenges, particularly in developing nations. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) enhance plant nutrient uptake and may provide a sustainable solution. This study evaluated the impact of locally sourced AMF inocula on the nutritional quality of four sorghum cultivars grown on vertisols in Sudan’s central clay plains. A split-plot field trial at two locations assessed AMF inoculation (main plot factor) and sorghum cultivars (sub-plot factor) across three replicates. AMF inoculation significantly improved grain crude protein (10.5% to 11.9%), in-vitro protein digestibility (60.8 to 69.9 g/100 g), protein solubility (4.0 to 4.9 g/100 g), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content (0.6 to 2.1 mg/g). Total and bioavailable iron and zinc levels in AMF-treated grains (40.6% and 40.3%, respectively) exceeded those in non-treated grains (36.3% and 35.8%, respectively). Phytate content, an anti-nutrient, decreased significantly (339.9 to 238.2 mg/100 g) with AMF, showing an inverse relationship with micronutrient levels. Partial least squares regression analysis identified cultivar P954063 with AMF inoculation at Medani as optimal for enhancing grain nutritional quality. These findings highlight the potential of locally produced AMF inoculum to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in Sudan and similar regions.

Enhancement of nutritional quality of chickpea flour by solid-state fermentation for improvement of in vitro antioxidant activity and protein digestibility.

The nutritional properties, anti-nutritional factors, and in vitro digestion characteristics of chickpeas after solid-state fermentation (SSF) with autochthonous microorganisms were investigated. Two strains (P.pentosaceus LFSBB12 & P.pentosaceus LFSBB13) selected from the chickpea substrate were chosen as starter cultures for SSF based on their comprehensive assessment of tolerance, proteolytic activity and α-Galactoside digestion. The results showed phytic acid content decreased dramatically (47.24%) in P.pentosaceus LFSBB12 group compared with that in the unfermented chickpea flour (UCF). Total phenolic and flavonoid of chickpeas both increased approximately threefold in fermentation group. After digestion, the increase in γ-aminobutyric acid, protocatechuic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid content exhibited significant positive correlations with the enhancement of in vitro antioxidant activity. Protein digestibility reached to 86.22% (P.pentosaceus LFSBB12) and 82.41% (P.pentosaceus LFSBB13) compared to UCF (74.59%). Fermentation samples gained higher proportion of small peptides and functional bioactive peptides. Therefore, SSF with autochthonous microorganisms could enhance nutritional quality of chickpeas.

Effects of Sodium Selenite on Accumulations of Selenium and GABA, Phenolic Profiles, and Antioxidant Activity of Foxtail Millet During Germination.

This study investigated the influence of soaking and spraying with a sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) solution on selenium accumulation, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content, phenolic compositions, and the antioxidant activity of foxtail millet sprouts. The screening results showed that foxtail millet seeds soaked with 60 mg/L of Na2SeO3 solution and sprayed with 2 mg/L of Na2SeO3 solution were the appropriate concentrations for the germination process. Compared with the spraying method, a presoaking treatment presented far higher selenium content and significantly higher (p < 0.05) selenium enrichment rates in foxtail millet sprouts. The content of free and bound phenolics, as well as GABA, were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in foxtail millet sprouts through both soaking and spraying treatments. Correspondingly, most of the individual phenolic compounds were significantly (p < 0.05) increased, especially after germination for 3 days. Trans-ferulic acid and trans-p-coumaric acid were the predominate bound phenolic acids, feruloylquinic acid and 4-p-coumaroylquinic acid were the major free-form phenolic compounds, and N-feruloyl serotonin and N-(p-coumaroyl) serotonin were the new arising phenolic derivatives caused by germination. Both the soaking and spraying treatments induced the enrichment of these individual phenolic compositions, thus increasing the total phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant activity of foxtail millet sprouts. It was indicated that selenium-enriched germination treatment should be an effective method to produce functional selenium-enriched foxtail millet sprouts with more abundant GABA and polyphenols, thus enhancing the health benefits and added value of foxtail millet.

Enhancement of γ-aminobutyric acid in fermented cucumbers.

The effects of brine acidification, glutamate addition, and starter culture on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content of fermented cucumber were investigated. GABA is a nonprotein amino acid with antihypertensive, antianxiety, and immunomodulatory properties. It is produced during cucumber fermentation but is limited by the low intrinsic concentration of free glutamate. Glutamine is 10-fold more abundant than glutamate in fresh cucumber and could provide additional substrate if converted to glutamate by glutaminase. Cucumbers were fermented in triplicate in acidified (pH 4.7-4.8) or nonacidified (pH 6.6) cover brines with 2% (342mM) sodium chloride (NaCl) and 0 or 10mM added glutamate. Indigenous and starter culture-assisted fermentations were conducted for each treatment at 28°C. The starter culture included lactobacilli containing gene sequences that encode for glutaminase (Lactobacillus gasseri ATCC 33323) and glutamate decarboxylase (Lactiplantibacillus plantarum WCFS1 ATCC BAA-793). GABA, glutamate, and glutamine were quantified by liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Both indigenous and starter culture-assisted fermentations effectively metabolized intrinsic and added glutamate, resulting in 10.4±2.2mM to 14.9±0.7mM GABA in glutamate supplemented fermentations compared with only 1.1±0.2mM in indigenous ferments. No additional increases in glutamate or downstream formation of GABA were observed in nonacidified brines with or without starter cultures, indicating that glutaminase production by L. gasseri and the indigenous microbiota was minimal or absent under these conditions. Glutamate addition to reduced salt cucumber fermentations generated ready-to-eat pickles that can deliver clinically relevant levels of GABA in a typical serving size. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Research was conducted to explore ways to increase the production of the health-promoting compound, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), in fermented cucumber pickles. Cucumbers were fermented in reduced salt cover brines with or without added glutamate and/or acetic acid. Both natural and starter culture-assisted fermentations effectively converted the intrinsic and added glutamate to GABA, producing ready-to-eat pickles that can deliver clinically relevant levels of GABA in a typical serving size.

Aromatherapy was used to explore the sedative and hypnotic effects of Moringa seed essential oil on insomnia rats.

Moringa is a type of plant that is used both for medicinal and food. Moringa seed (MS) are rich in volatile oil and have initially been employed to treat diseases of the nervous system. Insomnia, a prevalent neurological disorder, has led to this study's aim: to extract the essential oil from MS and analyze its potential to improve sleep. This study utilized petroleum ether for the thermal extraction of the essential oil from MS, which was then subjected to compositional analysis using Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS). P-chlorophenyl alanine (PCPA) was used to induce an insomnia model in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Following the successful establishment of the model, the MS essential oil was administered at concentrations of 10%, 5%, and 2.5% to investigate its sedative and hypnotic effects. The efficacy of the MS essential oil was assessed by observing the general condition of rats in each group, conducting an open field test, a pentobarbital sodium righting test, and measuring the serum 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine) levels and hypothalamic GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) content. GC-MS analysis of the MS essential oil revealed a rich composition, including oleic acid, palmitoleic acid, stigmasterol, and γ-stigmasterol, among other substances. Through the assessment of the rats' general condition, behavioral tests, and blood biochemical assays, it was inferred that MS essential oil aromatherapy can reduce the rat's locomotor activity, increase their interest in activity and exploration, enhance the serum 5-HT levels, and elevate hypothalamic GABA content. Consequently, it can be concluded that MS essential oil has a sedative and hypnotic effect.

Methyl jasmonate attenuates chilling injury of prune fruit by maintaining ROS homeostasis and regulating GABA metabolism and energy status

Cold storage is an important means to prolong the storage life of postharvest fruits. However, prunes are prone to chilling injury (CI) at low temperatures, which in turn reduces their marketability. In this study, methyl jasmonate (MeJA) effectively inhibited the occurrence of CI, and reduced internal browning index and electrolyte leakage of prune fruit under low temperature (1 ± 1 °C), with the most significant inhibitory effect observed at the concentration of 10 μM. Also, MeJA alleviated the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by promoting the activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase) and the expression level of their coding genes, thereby maintaining the integrity of the mitochondrial structure of prune fruit. Moreover, MeJA maintained higher content of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) through stimulating glutamate decarboxylase activity and retained higher energy levels by promoting the activity of succinate dehydrogenase, cytochrome C oxidase, H+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase, GABA transaminase, and succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and expression level of the corresponding gene of prune fruit. Our findings not only shed light on the inhibitory effect of MeJA on CI of prune fruit from the perspective of reducing ROS-induced oxidative damage to maintain mitochondrial structure, activating GABA shunt, and maintaining energy supply but also provide means of alleviating CI of prune fruit during postharvest storage.

Transcriptome and targeted metabolome analysis of lipid profiles, nutrients compositions and volatile compounds in longissimus dorsi of different pig breeds.

Improving meat quality is important for commercial production and breeding. The molecular mechanism of intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition and meat characteristics remain further study. This study aimed to study the mechanism of IMF deposition and meat characteristics including redox potential, nutrients compositions and volatile compounds in longissimus dorsi (LD) by comparing with different pig breeds including Shanghai white (SW), Duroc x (Landrace Yorkshire) (DLY) and Laiwu (LW) pigs. Results showed that the contents of IMF, triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and redox potential parameters were lower, while the content of MDA and activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were higher in LD of SW pigs compared with LW pigs (p<0.05). No differences were observed about these parameters between SW and DLY pigs. Also, the contents of medium-long chain fatty acids and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were higher, while Asp was lower in LD of SW pigs compared with LW pigs (p<0.05). Volatile compounds results showed that 6 ketones, 4 alkenes, 11 alkanes, 2 aldehydes, 1 alcohol were increased and cholesterol was decreased in SW pigs compared with LW pigs. Transcriptome results showed that differential expressed genes involved in lipid synthesis, metabolism and transport in LD between SW and LW pigs, which were further verified by qPCR. Spearman correlation showed that HSL and Nedd4 were positively related to contents of TG and IMF, while negatively related to volatile compounds and fatty acids (p<0.05). Plin3 and Mgll were negatively related to contents of TG, IMF and cholesterol, while positively related to MDA, LDH, and volatile compounds (p<0.05). PPARA was negatively related to contents of TC and IMF, and activity of SOD, while positively related to volatile compounds (p<0.05). Our study provided new insights into potential mechanisms of IMF deposition, nutrients composition and volatile compounds of muscular tissues of different pig breeds.

Reduction of soybean globulin antigen by soybean protein isolate/γ-aminobutyric acid complexes: Effect of the different concentrations of γ-aminobutyric acid on the protein modification, antigen levels, and foaming properties

Soybean flour has received increasing attention because of its unique nutritional properties. However, potential allergies to soy protein limit its application. This study aims to investigate the impact of various concentrations of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on the secondary structure, foaming properties, and antigenicity of soybean protein obtained from soybean flour under thermal sterilisation. GABA increased the content of α-helix, reduced β-turn and random coil in soybean protein. The results indicated that after heating treatment, the concentration of GABA significantly affects the spatial conformation of soybean protein isolates (SPI). When the concentration of GABA was 0.40% (w/v), the particle size, zeta potential, and surface hydrophobicity of the SPI were the lowest, whereas the disulfide bond content was the highest. Multi-spectral technologies indicated that adding 0.40% GABA could assemble the system in a relatively stable manner. Moreover, the rigid structure of the protein was destroyed. This structural change significantly reduced the foaming and allergy of the protein. Adding 0.40% GABA could reduce the β-conglycinin antigen concentration from 24.26 mg/mL to 4.43 mg/mL. This study provides new insights into the production of new low-allergenic soybean flour. Additionally, it offers an assurance for the safe consumption of soybeans by individuals with allergies.

Regulation of Glutamate and γ-Aminobutyric Acid Receptors in Rats with Depression by Sniffing the Essential Oil of Citrus × aurantium L. [Rutaceae

Background Modern research has proved that the volatile oil (VO) of Citrus × aurantium L. [Rutaceae] has the effect of treating depression, but the mechanism of treating depression by sniffing has not been studied. Purpose To study the mechanism of VO on depression. Methods Part I: Except for the blank group, the sniffing group and nasal drip group were continuously administered for 7 days to investigate the optimal administration method. Part II: Except for the blank group, the model, positive group, high, medium, and low dose group of VO were established by chronic unpredictable stress test. The VO was given on the 7th day of modeling for 17 consecutive days. The expression of neurotransmitters and receptors in the brain was determined. The medicinal ingredients in rat brain tissue and blood were detected by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Results Compared with nasal drip, sniffing administration has less irritation to the nasal mucosa. The VO could reduce the forced swimming immobility time, adjust the activity state, increase the content of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), reduce the content of glutamate, and upregulate the expression of GABAα1, GABAγ2, and their mRNA. The main pharmaceutical component is d-limonene. Conclusion d-limonene in VO upregulates GABAα1, GABAγ2 expression to treat depression.

Enhancement of γ-aminobutyric acid content in Huangjiu through rice bran fermentation and its impact on the volatile organic compounds

Rice bran has high glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) activity and can be used to enrich and produce γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Glutinous rice was used as raw material to brew Huangjiu by liquefaction fermentation. Rice bran extract was added at different fermentation stages, then the content of GABA and basic physicochemical properties were tested, the changes of flavor substances and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were observed in Huangjiu. The results showed the addition of concentrated GABA-enriched rice bran extract during the post-fermentation stage significantly increases the GABA content in Huangjiu. When the amount of rice bran used is 50 g, the GABA content in the Huangjiu can reach 592.44 mg/L after fermentation. The total sugar and pH of Huangjiu fermented with rice bran extract were higher than the control group, and the total acid and non-sugar solids were lower than the control group. Electronic tongue analysis showed that the addition of rice bran extract would affect the sourness, umami and saltiness taste of Huangjiu. Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC-IMS) analysis of Huangjiu made by adding rice bran extract at the post-fermentation stage showed increased isoamyl acetate, 2-heptanol, and other substances in comparison with the control group. The results of the study provide a cost-effective and rapid method for increasing the GABA content in Huangjiu. It also offers a theoretical basis and scientific guidance for the production of health-oriented Huangjiu.

Study of the relationship among biomarkers, cell and tissue of glioma through Raman spectroscopy

Glioma is the most common brain tumors with high mortality and recurrence rates. Currently, the diagnosis methods for glioma are mainly based on tissue level, cellular level and biomarker level. In this paper, the characteristics of biomarkers (γ-aminobutyric acid and matrix mtalloproteinses-2), U87MG glioma cell and tissue were studied based on Raman spectroscopy, respectively. The results showed that the γ-aminobutyric acid concentration exhibited a linear relation with the intensity of characteristic peaks in 800–1600 cm−1 region, whereas the spectral baseline increased with the increasing of sample concentration in 200–700 cm−1 region. The Raman characteristics of matrix mtalloproteinses-2 in 20–1800 cm−1 region was investigated. Especially, it is demonstrated that the matrix mtalloproteinses-2 showed sixteen low-wavenumber Raman peaks in the range of 20–300 cm−1. Moreover, the U87MG glioma cell showed seven different Raman characteristic peaks in 600–1800 cm−1 region. Compared with the normal tissue, the Raman intensity of tumor tissue showed apparent intensity differences in 300–1800 cm−1, where the intensity changes of these Raman peaks were related to the reducing of the lipid metabolic pathways, and increase of the RNA in tumor tissue region. Furthermore, it is found that the Raman spectra of U87MG glioma cell and tumor tissue had corresponding peaks in the Raman spectra of the liquid γ-aminobutyric acid and matrix mtalloproteinses-2. It is suggested that the γ-aminobutyric acid and matrix mtalloproteinses-2 contributed to the formation and growth of glioma cell and tissue. Thus, Raman spectroscopy not only can diagnose glioma at the biomarkers, cellular and tissue level, but also analyze the relationship among the three. Furthermore, the results provided a physical marker for the detection of glioma in clinically.

Non-Targeted Metabolomics Analysis of γ-Aminobutyric Acid Enrichment in Germinated Maize Induced by Pulsed Light.

Pulsed light is an emerging technique in plant physiology recognized for its ability to enhance germination and accumulate γ-aminobutyric acid in maize. Pulsed light involves exposing plants to brief, high-intensity bursts of light, which can enhance photosynthesis, improve growth, and increase resistance to environmental stresses. Despite its promising potential, the specific metabolic changes leading to γ-aminobutyric acid enrichment in maize induced by pulsed light are not fully understood. This study addresses this gap by quantifying key nutrients and γ-aminobutyric acid-related compounds during maize germination and investigating the underlying mechanisms using non-targeted metabolomics. Our findings indicate that pulsed light significantly promotes maize germination and accelerates the hydrolysis of proteins, sugars, and lipids. This acceleration is likely due to the activation of enzymes involved in these metabolic pathways. Additionally, pulsed light markedly increases the content of glutamic acid and the activity of glutamate decarboxylase, which are crucial for γ-aminobutyric acid synthesis. Moreover, pulsed light significantly reduces the activity of γ-aminobutyric transaminase, thereby inhibiting γ-aminobutyric acid decomposition and resulting in a substantial increase in γ-aminobutyric acid content, with a 27.20% increase observed in germinated maize following pulsed light treatment. Metabolomic analysis further revealed enrichment of metabolic pathways associated with γ-aminobutyric acid, including amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, plant hormone signal transduction, energy metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism, and ABC transporters. In conclusion, pulsed light is a robust and efficient method for producing sprouted maize with a high γ-aminobutyric acid content. This technique provides a novel approach for developing sprouted cereal foods with enhanced nutritional profiles, leveraging the physiological benefits of γ-aminobutyric acid, which include stress alleviation and potential health benefits for humans.

Influence of germination time on free amino acids, phenolic compounds and γ-aminobutyric acid in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth) seeds

This research studied the influence of phytochemical compounds on the germination time of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth). Over the 72 hours germination period, the contents of total and most individual free amino acids, particularly histidine, showed substantial increases. The content of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was also greatly increased, from 0.24 µg/g to 2.7 µg/g, representing a nearly ninefold increase. The total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were positively related with germination time, with TPC highest at 62.49 mg GAE/100 g DW at 72 h, and TFC increased from 18.87 mg RE/100 g DW to 30.05 mg RE/100g.DW at 72 hours. The contents of individual phenolic acids and flavonoids, such as, protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and rutin, experienced noticeable increases. However, vanillic and catechin were only detectable at 72 hours, respectively. Antioxidant capacity measured by DPPH and FRAP assays increased from 102.30 to 128.95 mgTE/100g DW and 694.13 to 836.93 mg FeSO4/100g DW mmol/g, respectively, and therefore highlighting the enhanced antioxidant potential of germinated pigeon pea. The results from Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) supported these findings. The study emphasizes the potential of germination to enhance the phytochemical compounds of pigeon pea seeds.

Differences in cooking taste and physicochemical properties between compound nutritional rice and common rice.

In this study, it was compared the physicochemical properties and cooking taste quality between four different types of compound nutritional rice (rice flour with the addition of other coarse grains, legumes, potatoes, and other powders, extruded as artificial rice grains) and common rice. We found that the protein and apparent amylose contents of compound nutritional rice were higher than that of common rice, up to 9.775% and 19.45% respectively. The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and resistant starch contents were much lower than in common rice, and the dietary fiber content did not differ from that in common rice. The results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that the starch properties and structure of the compound nutritional rice changed due to high temperature and high pressure processing. In particular, the crystalline structures of starch became V-shaped. In addition, the results of artificial tasting and tasting meter showed that the taste of compound nutritional rice was generally inferior to that of common rice. In summary, compound nutritional rice had problems such as nutritional imbalance and poor taste. There was still a lot of room for improving the taste quality of compound nutritional rice. Therefore, the future development of compound nutritional rice should focus on both nutritional balance and taste improvement. The results of this paper also provided a certain theoretical basis for this.

The functional and nutritional properties of a novel Monascus fermented rice rich in resistant starch

Rice high in resistant starch (RS) showed great benefits in preventing diabetes. Red mold rice (RMR) is a traditionally functional food in China, preparing RMR with high-RS rice might produce a novel RMR with better nutrients and promote the utilization of high-RS rice in the food industry. R4 with the highest RS content was the most prone to be fermented by Monascus. After fermentation, the total starch and protein contents were significantly decreased, while the RS, lipid, free glucan, total free amino acids (FAAs), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) contents were remarkably increased. Concurrently, the phenolic content and antioxidation activity were enhanced greatly. The individual phenolic acids such as ferulic acid showed significantly positive correlations with the antioxidant activity. Besides the abundant lipids, FAAs, GABA, and strong antioxidant capacity, fermented R4 had the highest ferulic acid content. This study provided alternatives for producing novel RMR and widened applications of high-RS rice in innovative functional foods.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effects and Mechanism of the Submerged Culture of Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Its Possible Active Compounds.

The pharmacological effects of the fruiting body of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (O. sinensis) such as antioxidant, anti-virus, and immunomodulatory activities have already been described, whereas the anti-inflammatory effects and active components of the submerged culture of O. sinesis (SCOS) still need to be further verified. This study aimed to investigate the active compounds in the fermented liquid (FLOS), hot water (WEOS), and 50-95% (EEOS-50, EEOS-95) ethanol extracts of SCOS and their anti-inflammatory effects and potential mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglial BV2 cells. The results demonstrated that all of the SCOS extracts could inhibit NO production in BV2 cells. EEOS-95 exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects (71% inhibitory ability at 500 µg/mL), and its ergosterol, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), total phenolic, and total flavonoid contents were significantly higher than those of the other extracts (18.60, 18.60, 2.28, and 2.14 mg/g, p < 0.05, respectively). EEOS-95 also has a strong inhibitory ability against IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α with an IC50 of 617, 277, and 507 µg/mL, respectively, which is higher than that of 1 mM melatonin. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of EEOS-95 seems to be associated with the up-regulation of PPAR-γ/Nrf-2/HO-1 antioxidant-related expression and the down-regulation of NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS pro-inflammatory expression signaling. In summary, we demonstrated that EEOS-95 exhibits neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegenerative disorder activities in LPS-induced inflammation in brain microglial cells.

Analyzing the Effects of Rapid and Natural Cooling Techniques on the Quality of Hand-Shaken Green Tea Beverages.

This study compared the quality of hand-shaken green tea prepared through rapid and natural cooling methods. Cooling is crucial in preserving green tea's flavor, aroma, and nutritional components. In the rapid cooling method, green tea is freshly brewed at an initial temperature of 95 °C for 25 min, and then rapidly cooled to 18 °C for 25 min. Conversely, the natural cooling method involves brewing tea at the same initial temperature and time, but allowing it to cool gradually to 30 °C over approximately 4-5 h at room temperature. This study's findings indicate that the rapid cooling method produced green tea with a more vibrant color and improved clarity versus the natural cooling method. Sensory analysis revealed that the taste and aroma of the hand-shaken green tea prepared using rapid cooling were perceived to be more refreshing and invigorating. However, the natural cooling method preserved a higher level of chemical components, including individual catechin caffeine, total polyphenol, soluble solids, reducing sugar, and total tannins. The essential amino acid content of the rapidly and naturally cooled green tea infusions was 6.85 and 13.55 μg/mL, respectively. The γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) content was 439.82 and 457.31 μg/mL, respectively. This study's findings suggest that rapid cooling during the preparation of hand-shaken green tea enhances its overall quality. The vibrant color, improved clarity, refreshing taste, and invigorating aroma make it a preferable choice for tea enthusiasts who seek an enhanced sensory experience and excellent quality.

The neurochemistry of learning-driven sensory eye dominance plasticity

Abstract Sensory eye dominance (SED) refers to a functional asymmetry of the two eyes that is thought to result from the visual cortex assigning uneven weighting to the two eyes’ data. Dichoptic perceptual training has been shown to improve (reduce) SED in visually normal individuals, with behavioral improvements accompanied by alterations of neural responses in the primary visual cortex. The mechanisms underlying these learning-driven neural changes are not well understood. Here, using magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we determined how inhibitory mechanisms in the early visual cortex (EVC) govern SED plasticity by measuring γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) concentration changes before and after perceptual training. Fifty normal-sighted observers were trained on a dichoptic or binocular variant of a signal-in-noise (left–right) motion discrimination task. We observed significant shifts in SED following dichoptic (but not binocular) training. Before training, both groups exhibited lower GABA concentrations in the EVC when signals were presented to the dominant eye. Only after dichoptic training, GABA concentrations in the EVC increased during presentations of signals to the dominant eye and decreased during presentations of signals to the non-dominant eye. Our data suggest that dichoptic training drives changes in SED by promoting a rebalancing of interocular inhibition in the EVC.

Effects of anaerobic treatment on the non-volatile components and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity of purple-colored leaf tea

This study investigated the effect of anaerobic treatment on the non-volatile components and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity in purple-colored leaf tea. Results showed that after 8 h of anaerobic treatment, the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content significantly increased from 0.02 mg/g to 1.72 mg/g (p < 0.05), while lactic acid content gradually rose from non-detectable levels to 3.56 mg/g. Notably, certain flavonols like quercetin and myricetin exhibited significant increments, whereas the total anthocyanins (1.01 mg/g) and epigallocatechin-3-(3''-O-methyl) gallate (13.47 mg/g) contents remained almost unchanged. Furthermore, the ACE inhibition rate of purple-colored leaf tea increased significantly from 42.16% to 49.20% (p < 0.05) at a concentration of 2 mg/mL. Moreover, galloylated catechins showed stronger ACE inhibitory activity than non-galloylated catechins in both in vitro ACE inhibitory activity and molecular docking analysis. These findings might contribute to the development of special purple-colored leaf tea products with potential therapy for hypertension.