Breast Milk Concentrations Research Articles

Breast milk leptin concentrations and infant anthropometric indicators in SGA versus non-SGA breastfed infants born at term

Leptin concentrations in breast milk can influence metabolic programming during the first months of life. Small for gestational age (SGA) newborns show a peculiar growth pattern after birth, which can lead to adulthood diseases. This study aims to assess an association between leptin concentration in mature breast milk and the infant anthropometric indicators of the SGA and the non-SGA groups, in addition, to comparing the hormone level between these groups. A longitudinal study was performed with mother-infant pairs. The maternal sociodemographic information was collected in the first 48 h postpartum. Breast milk was collected at one month postpartum and leptin concentrations were obtained by immunoassays. The infant anthropometric measurements were collected at three and six months postpartum and included weight, height (to body mass index-BMI calculated), triceps skinfold (TSF), and subscapular skinfold (SSF). The BMI for age (BMI/A), TSF, and SSF were calculated by Z-score indicators. Data from 67 mother-infant pairs (n = 16 SGA and n = 51 non-SGA) were analyzed. In univariate analyses, the breast milk of the SGA group had lower leptin concentrations than the non-SGA group (p = 0.006), however, after adjustment, there was no difference between groups (p = 0.181). In the SGA group, there was a significant association between leptin concentrations and lower SSF at six months in infants, after adjustment (p = 0.003). In the non-SGA group, the breast milk leptin was associated with lower BMI/A at three and six months in infants, after adjustment (p = 0.002 and p = 0.010, respectively). The association between breast milk leptin concentrations with SSF in the SGA group and BMI/A in the non-SGA group suggests that leptin may be a modulating factor in infant growth in the first months of life.

Metabolizable Energy Content of Breastmilk Supports Normal Growth in Exclusively Breastfed Icelandic Infants to Age 6 Months

BackgroundNeither the global population nor individual countries have reached the World Health Organization (WHO) target of ≥50% of infants exclusively breastfed (EBF) until 6 mo. This may partly be because of the perceptions of insufficient milk and energy supply to meet rapid growth and development needs. ObjectivesIn a longitudinal observational study, we aimed to determine whether breastmilk energy content is sufficient to support growth during EBF until 6 mo. MethodsA sample of 27 EBF infants was dosed with doubly labeled water (DLW) at 5.6 mo to measure body composition, breastmilk intake, energy intake, and the metabolizable energy (ME) content of their mother’s breastmilk over the following week. Z-scores were calculated for anthropometry using WHO reference data and for fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) using United Kingdom reference data. ResultsAnthropometric z-scores from birth indicated normal weight and length growth patterns. At ∼6 mo, the mean ± standard deviation (SD) FFM z-score was 0.22 ± 1.07, and the FM z-score was 0.78 ± 0.70, significantly >0. In the 22 infants with acceptable data, the mean ± SD measured intake of breastmilk was 983 ± 170 g/d and of energy, 318 ± 60 kJ/kg/d, equivalent to 75.9 ± 14.3 kcal/kg/d. The mean ME content of breastmilk was 2.61 kJ/g [standard error (SE) 0.1], equivalent to 0.62 kcal/g (SE 0.02). Mothers were positive toward breastfeeding, on paid maternity leave (planned mean 10 mo), and many (56%) had received specialized breastfeeding support. ConclusionsThe evidence from this study confirms that when mothers are motivated and supported without economic restraints, breastmilk intake and the energy supplied by breastmilk to EBF infants at 6 mo of age is sufficient to support normal growth patterns. There was no evidence of constraint on FFM, and other studies show that high FM in EBF infants is likely to be transient. These data further support the recommendation for EBF ≤6 mo of age for body composition.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02586571.

Comprehensive evaluation of perchlorate dietary exposure and health risks for Chinese adult males and breastfed infants

Perchlorate is an environmental contaminant that has both natural and anthropogenic sources. Widespread contamination of various foods with perchlorate can be caused by water, soil, and fertilizer. Because of concerns about the health effects of perchlorate, attention has focused on its occurrence in food and potential human exposure. In this study, the dietary exposures of Chinese adult males and breastfed infants to perchlorate were evaluated using data from the sixth China Total Diet Study and the third National Breast Milk Monitoring Program conducted between 2016 and 2019. In the sixth China Total Diet Study, perchlorate was detected in 94.8 % of composite dietary samples (n = 288) from 24 provinces in China, while for the third National Breast Milk Monitoring, perchlorate was found in 100 % of pooled breast milk samples (n = 100) collected from 100 cities/counties in China. Vegetables were found to be the main source of dietary exposure for Chinese adult males. Furthermore, the concentrations in breast milk between urban (n = 34, mean: 38.6 μg/L) and rural (n = 66, mean: 59.0 μg/L) regions from 100 cities/counties in China were not significantly different. On average, the estimated daily intake of Chinese adult males (18–45 years) to perchlorate was 0.449 μg/kg bw/day, while that for breastfed infants (0–24 months) was 3.21–5.43 μg/kg bw/day. The exposure to perchlorate in breastfed infants was almost 10-fold greater than that of Chinese adult males.

Fluorinated liquid-crystal monomers in paired breast milk and indoor dust: A pilot prospective study

Fluorinated liquid-crystal monomers (FLCMs), one class of emerging persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) compounds, are widely used in liquid-crystal displays (LCDs). As a result, they have been found in the environment and serum from occupational workers. However, little is known about their occurrence in non-occupational exposing populations. Herein, we provided an evaluation of the health risks of FLCMs for infants based on breastfeeding exposure and dust ingestion. The detection frequencies (DF) of FLCMs in indoor dust and breast milk was 100 %, with median concentrations of 12.00 ng/g dry weight (dw) and 133.40 ng/g lipid weight (lw), respectively. 1-butoxy-2,3-difluoro-4-(trans-4-propylcyclohexyl)benzene (BDPrB) was the predominant pollutant in indoor dust and human breast milk. Significant positive correlations were observed between the dust concentrations of seven FLCMs including BDPrB, and their breast milk concentrations (r = 0.275–0.660, P < 0.05). Further, associations were also found in some demographic and behavioral factors and concentrations of some FLCMs (P < 0.05). The highest EDI of ∑FLCMs was observed for infants who were < 1 month of age, with a median breast milk intake of 700.35 ng/kg bw/day, in which 1-ethoxy-2,3-difluoro-4-(trans-4-propylcyclohexyl)benzene (EDPrB), BDPrB, and 4′-[(trans, trans)-4′-butyl[1,1′-bicyclohexyl]-4-yl]-3,4-difluoro-1,1′-biphenyl (BBDB) collectively contributed 94.4 % of the total EDIs. Notably, the lactational intake of FLCMs was higher than that of some environmental pollutants (EPs). Overall, our results suggest higher exposure risks for infants and breastfeeding is the predominant exposure route for daily intake of FLCMs for infants.

Policies Affecting Pregnant Women with Substance Use Disorder

Policies Affecting Pregnant Women with Substance Use Disorder

Association between maternal metabolic profiles in pregnancy, dietary patterns during lactation and breast milk leptin: a retrospective cohort study.

Breast milk leptin plays a potential role in preventing childhood obesity. However, the associations of breast milk leptin with maternal metabolism in pregnancy and dietary patterns during lactation are still unclear. We aimed to explore associations of breast milk leptin with maternal metabolic profiles in pregnancy and dietary patterns during lactation. A total of 332 participants were recruited for this retrospective cohort study. Breast milk samples were collected at approximately 6 weeks postpartum. Breast milk leptin and twenty-three metabolic profiles in pregnancy were measured in this study. A semi-quantitative FFQ was used to gather dietary information during lactation. Both principal component analysis and the diet balance index were used to derive dietary patterns. Among twenty-three maternal metabolic profiles, maternal serum glucose (β = 1·61, P = 0·009), γ-glutamyl transferase (β = 0·32, P = 0·047) and albumin (β = -2·96, P = 0·044) in pregnancy were correlated with breast milk leptin. All dietary patterns were associated with breast milk leptin. Given the joint effects of maternal metabolism in pregnancy and dietary patterns during lactation, only diet quality distance was significantly associated with leptin concentrations in breast milk (low level v. almost no diet problem: β = -0·46, P = 0·011; moderate/high level v. almost no diet problem: β = -0·43, P = 0·035). In conclusion, both maternal metabolism in pregnancy and dietary patterns during lactation were associated with breast milk leptin. Maternal diet balance during lactation was helpful to improve breast milk leptin concentration.

Infant Exposure to Antituberculosis Drugs via Breast Milk and Assessment of Potential Adverse Effects in Breastfed Infants: Critical Review of Data.

Infants of mothers treated for tuberculosis might be exposed to drugs via breast milk. The existing information on the exposure of breastfed infants lacks a critical review of the published data. We aimed to evaluate the quality of the existing data on antituberculosis (anti-TB) drug concentrations in the plasma and milk as a methodologically sound basis for the potential risk of breastfeeding under therapy. We performed a systematic search in PubMed for bedaquiline, clofazimine, cycloserine/terizidone, levofloxacin, linezolid, pretomanid/pa824, pyrazinamide, streptomycin, ethambutol, rifampicin and isoniazid, supplemented with update references found in LactMed®. We calculated the external infant exposure (EID) for each drug and compared it with the recommended WHO dose for infants (relative external infant dose) and assessed their potential to elicit adverse effects in the breastfed infant. Breast milk concentration data were mainly not satisfactory to properly estimate the EID. Most of the studies suffer from limitations in the sample collection, quantity, timing and study design. Infant plasma concentrations are extremely scarce and very little data exist documenting the clinical outcome in exposed infants. Concerns for potential adverse effects in breastfed infants could be ruled out for bedaquiline, cycloserine/terizidone, linezolid and pyrazinamide. Adequate studies should be performed covering the scenario in treated mothers, breast milk and infants.

The Antioxidant Capacity of Breast Milk and Plasma of Women with or without Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.

Women with gestational diabetes (GD) have reduced antioxidant capacity; however, the relationship between maternal diet, maternal biochemical capacity, breast milk concentration, and infant intake has not been adequately explored in the literature. An exploration of underlying mechanism(s) is warranted, particularly for nutrient antioxidants impacted by maternal intake. These nutrients may provide a means for modifying maternal and infant antioxidant capacity. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and beta-carotene concentrations were measured in breast milk of women with and without GD. Plasma, three-day diet records, and breast milk were collected at 6 to 8 weeks postpartum. Student's t-test was used to compare breast milk ORAC, nutrient antioxidant concentration and plasma ORAC between women with and without GD. Pearson correlations were used to determine associations among antioxidant concentrations in breast milk and dietary antioxidant intake. Breast milk antioxidant concentrations were associated with maternal intake of beta-carotene (r = 0.629, p = 0.005). Breast milk and plasma ORAC and antioxidant vitamin concentrations were not significantly different between GD and NG women. Breast milk ORAC associated with breast milk alpha-tocopherol for NG (r = 0.763, p = 0.010), but not GD women (r = 0.385, p = 0.35), and with breast milk ascorbic acid for GD (r = 0.722, p = 0.043) but not NG women (r = 0.141, p = 0.70; interaction p = 0.041). In GD participants, breast milk ORAC was significantly associated with plasma ORAC (r = 0.780, p = 0.039). ORAC and antioxidant vitamin concentrations in breast milk in women with GD were comparable to women with NG; however, the relationships between breast milk ORAC and vitamin concentrations differed in GD versus NG women for alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid.

Infants’ Folate Markers and Postnatal Growth in the First 4 Months of Life in Relation to Breastmilk and Maternal Plasma Folate

Human milk is the sole source of folate in exclusively breastfed infants. We investigated whether human milk folate or maternal plasma folate are associated with infants' folate status and postnatal growth in the first 4 months of life. Exclusively breastfed infants (n = 120) were recruited at age < 1 month (baseline). Blood samples were available at baseline and at the age of 4 months. Plasma and breastmilk samples were available from the mothers at 8 weeks postpartum. The concentrations of (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) and different folate status markers were measured in samples of the infants and their mothers. The z-scores of weight, height, and head circumference of the infants were measured five times between baseline and 4 months. Women with 5-MTHF concentrations in breastmilk <39.9 nmol/L (median) had higher plasma 5-MTHF compared to those with milk 5-MTHF concentrations >39.9 nmol/L (mean (SD) plasma 5-MTHF = 23.3 (16.5) vs. 16.6 (11.9) nmol/L; p = 0.015). At the age of 4 months, infants of women who were higher suppliers of 5-MTHF in breastmilk had higher plasma folate than those of low-supplier women (39.2 (16.1) vs. 37.4 (22.4) nmol/L; adjusted p = 0.049). The concentrations of breastmilk 5-MTHF and maternal plasma folate were not associated with infants' longitudinal anthropometric measurements between baseline and 4 months. Higher 5-MTHF in breastmilk was associated with higher folate status in the infants and the depletion of folate in maternal circulation. No associations were seen between maternal or breastmilk folate and infants' anthropometrics. Adaptive mechanisms might counteract the effect of low milk folate on infant development.

Factors associated with secretory IgA levels in colostrum and breastmilk

Background Secretory IgA (sIgA) content of breastmilk in the first postpartum month is a reflection of the pregnant woman's immune response to environmental antigen exposure. The role of secretory IgA in breastmilk is to protect and support the development of the neonatal immune response in early life.&#x0D; Objective To examine possible factors associated with sIgA levels in breastmilk and colostrum, including environmental exposure, food consumed, maternal history of atopy, and the appearance of allergic symptoms in infants. As a secondary objective, we determined the association between infant factors (IgE, exposure to cigarette smoke) and maternal factors (sIgA, maternal allergies) with infant allergies.&#x0D; Methods This prospective cohort study of 80 postpartum mothers and their infants was conducted at Sultan Agung Islamic Hospital, Semarang. We collected maternal colostrum on the second or third postpartum day and mature milk between the 22nd to 25th postpartum day. Exposure factors to mothers and infants in the final trimester of pregnancy up to one month postpartum was recorded through a questionnaire and home visits. The infant’s IgE level was measured at 4 months of age.&#x0D; Results Mean colostrum sIgA was 108.9 (SD 16.5) mg/dL (95%CI 97.9 to 121.1 mg/dL) and mean mature milk sIgA was 94.1 (SD 23.9) mg/dL (95%CI 89.1 to 99.2 mg/dL). Mean colostrum sIgA levels were higher in mothers exposed to cigarette smoke [119.1 (SD 1.7) vs. 92.9 (SD 1.5) mg/dL; P=0.026] and frequent infections [128.2 (SD 1.7) vs. 95.9 (SD 1.6) mg/dL; P=0.007] compared to that in unexposed mothers. Mean colostrum sIgA was also higher in mothers with atopic allergy than in those without (136.8 mg/dL vs. 99.3 mg/dL; p=0.017) and in mothers of infants with IgE levels &gt;29 IU/ml than in mothers of infants with IgE levels &lt;29 IU/mL (136.8 vs. 101.2 mg/mg/dL; P=0.045). Elevated colostrum sIgA (&gt;136.8 mg/dL) was not associated with allergies in the infants (P=0.269).&#x0D; Conclusions Maternal atopic allergy and frequent infections are associated with increased colostrum sIgA levels. Breastmilk sIgA levels are not associated with allergies in the infant. Maternal exposure to antigens may stimulate the production of specific breastmilk sIgA.

Pregnancy and lactation mixed exposure to lead, cadmium, and mercury alters maternal-offspring single heavy metal load: A factorial design

Environmental exposure to heavy metal mixture of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) would induce hazardous health effects. However, there is a paucity of data on how exposure to heavy metal mixture alters the metabolic dynamics of individual metals. Considering that the dose plays a key role in determining the toxicity of heavy metals, we performed a factorial design with three heavy metals (Pb, Cd, and Hg) at low exposure levels. Female rats were exposed to Pb, Cd, and (or) Hg from successful mating until pup weaning. Their concentrations in maternal blood, breast milk, and postnatal day 0 (PND0) and PND21 offspring blood and whole brain were measured. Using ANOVA analysis, Pearson correlation, and structural equation model, we demonstrated the complex interactions among heavy metals during their absorption, mother-offspring transport, and target organ accumulation. Among all the explored samples, almost all the highest Pb, Cd, and Hg levels were observed in their respective single heavy metal exposure groups. In addition, Hg was found could antagonize the transport of Pb or Cd, when they cross the placental barrier and blood-brain barriers (BBB). However, the effect of Hg no longer presented when they are absorbed through the digestive system. The antagonistic effect of Pb on Cd was observed when they cross the placental barrier. In addition, Cd was also found to compete the transport pathway of Pb when they cross the BBB after birth. Compared to Pb and Hg, we found that the transport efficiency of Cd in the digestive system was lower, whereas the chelation of Cd by the placental barrier was better. This preliminary information may help researchers to explore the mechanism underlying the hazardous effects of heavy metal mixture exposure, or for regulatory agencies to revise guidelines for heavy metal exposure.

A Mediterranean diet is associated with improved total antioxidant content of human breast milk and infant urine

BackgroundThe composition of breast milk (BM) is dynamic and can be influenced by maternal variables that include the diet and nutritional status. This study examined the association between maternal adherence to a Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and total antioxidant content of BM and infant urine.MethodsWe collected 350 BM samples from mothers and urine samples from their infants. The dietary intakes of the mothers were recorded using a validated 65 items-food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The total antioxidant status of the samples was assessed using the ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP), the 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and thiol quantification assays. Milk protein, calcium, and triglyceride (TG) were also determined using standard biochemical kits.ResultsSubjects with the highest MedDiet scores were among the women in the highest tertile (T3) for consumption of dietary fiber, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and seeds, low-fat dairy, whole grains, and the lowest consumption of red meat, sweetened beverages, and sodium, compared to women in the first tertile (T1) with the lowest MedDiet scores. After adjustment for potential confounders, the individuals in the highest tertile for MedDiet score had a significantly higher level of milk DPPH, and infant urinary DPPH than the lowest tertile and had a significantly higher level of milk protein, FRAP and infant urinary FRAP compared to the T2 (P < 0.05). In addition, the mothers in the T3 for the MedDiet pattern had a significantly lower level of milk TG compared to those within the T1 (P < 0.05).ConclusionOur findings show that a high maternal adherence to a MedDiet can affect BM composition and their infants' urine.

Novel SLC30A2 mutations in the pathogenesis of transient neonatal zinc deficiency.

Transient neonatal zinc deficiency (TNZD) occurs in breastfed infants due to abnormally low breast milk zinc levels. Mutations in the solute carrier family 30 member 2 (SLC30A2) gene, which encodes the zinc transporter ZNT2, cause low zinc concentration in breast milk. This study aimed to provide further insights into TNZD pathophysiology. SLC30A2 sequencing was performed in three unrelated Japanese mothers, whose infants developed TNZD due to low-zinc milk consumption. The effects of the identified mutations were examined using cell-based assays and luciferase reporter analysis. Novel SLC30A2 mutations were identified in each mother. One harbored a heterozygous missense mutation in the ZNT2 zinc-binding site, which resulted in defective zinc transport. The other two mothers exhibited multiple heterozygous mutations in the SLC30A2 promoter, the first mutations in the SLC30A2 regulatory region reported to date. This report provides new genetic insights into TNZD pathogenesis in breastfed infants.

PENINGKATAN PENGETAHUAN TENTANG PEMBERIAN ASI EKSKLUSIF PADA IBU MENYUSUI DI POSYANDU ANGGREK 3 LUBUK BAJA KOTA BATAM

Breast milk (ASI) is a source of meal that completed all the needs of infants aged 0-6 months. The nutritional content of breast milk has benefits in optimizing the growth and development of infants. The objectives of holding an extension program are: 1) Increased the knowledge of breastfeeding mothers about the importance of exclusive breastfeeding in infants aged 0-6 months. 2) Improved the skills of breastfeeding mothers about ASIP. 3) Improved the behavior of breastfeeding mothers towards exclusive breastfeeding to infants. Community service in this paper. The result of this counseling program is transfered knowledge to mothers regarding exclusive breastfeeding in infants aged 0-6 months

Low levels of tenofovir in breast milk support breastfeeding in HBV-infected mothers treated with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate

ObjectiveTenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is recommended for the prevention of mother-to-infant transmission of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This study investigated the safety of infants whose mothers continued to receive TDF while breastfeeding. Patients and methodThirty women taking TDF daily from the second or third trimester of pregnancy to three months postpartum were enrolled. Tenofovir (TFV) concentrations in breast milk were determined and compared with those in umbilical cord (UC) blood and amniotic fluid. Infant growth parameters were assessed at birth, and at 3, 6, and 12 months. TFV uptake experiments were conducted in vitro to elucidate the mechanisms of TFV exposure via breast milk. ResultsTFV concentrations in breast milk ranged from 1.4 to 11.7 ng/mL within 24 h after dosing in the third month postpartum. The median trough concentration of TFV in breast milk was 3.7 (interquartile range, 2.6–6.2) ng/mL, which is lower than that in UC blood (median = 53.5 ng/mL) and amniotic fluid (median = 531.0 ng/mL). The low permeability of TFV in MCF-10A cells may explain the minimal exposure to TFV in breast milk. Body weights, body lengths, and head circumferences of the breastfed infants were comparable to the national standards for physical development. ConclusionInfant exposure to TFV from breast milk is much lower than the exposure from placental transfer and swallowing from amniotic fluid. The physical growth parameters of all infants in this study were normal. The findings indicate that breastfeeding is safe for infants of HBV-infected mothers who continue to receive TDF through three months postpartum.

Maternal diet associated with infants' intestinal microbiota mediated by predominant long-chain fatty acid in breast milk.

Long-chain fatty acids in breast milk are affected by the mother's diet and play an important role in the growth, development, and immune construction of infants. This study aims to explore the correlation between maternal diet, breast milk fatty acids (FAs), and the infant intestinal flora. We enrolled 56 paired mothers and their infants; both breast milk samples and infants' fecal samples were collected to determine the long-chain FA content of breast milk by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), and metagenomic technology was applied to determine the microbial composition of infant feces. The maternal diet was also investigated using a 24-h dietary recall. The results indicated that the fat contribution rates of edible oils in the maternal diet are significantly positively correlated with the contents of certain long-chain fatty acids (C16:0, C18:1, C16:1, and C22:4) in breast milk, which mainly regulate the abundance of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lacticaseibacillus fermentum, and Lacticaseibacillus paracasei in the infant gut. Through KEGG pathway analysis, our data revealed that the long-chain FAs in different groups of breast milk were significantly correlated with the pathways of biotin metabolism, glycerolipid metabolism, and starch and sucrose metabolism. The results of this study suggest a pathway in which the diets of lactating mothers may affect the composition of the infant intestinal microbiota by influencing breast milk FAs and then further regulating infant health.

Principles of the Assessment of Food Additives Used in Food for Infants and Toddlers

Food additives are substances added to food to maintain or improve its safety, freshness, taste, texture, or appearance. Until recently, the assessment of food additives taken up with the normal food was performed only for the population above an age of 12 weeks. With the better knowledge of the physiological specificities in the age group below 12 weeks of age and considering that milk formulae can be the unique dietary source for infants up to 16 weeks, special assessments are performed for food additives already on the market for this age group. This publication explains the background and relevant guidelines for the assessment, including special guidelines for the age group below 16 weeks, and the different sources of information used. The principles followed to assess food additives are described. The requirements for the assessment of food additives used in infants’ food includes testing in special animal models if human data are absent. The amount of food additives the infants are exposed to is estimated based on an exposure assessment. The aim of the assessment is to compare the estimated intake of the FA with milk formulae with safe concentrations taken from clinical studies in infants, special animal models and/or by comparing the exposure by the milk formulae with the content of breast milk whatever is appropriate. Two examples (locust bean gum, lecithin) illustrate the application of the principles. Of special interest is the concentration of impurities in the food additive with a toxic potential, such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, relevant for all food additives, or glycidyl esters, 3‐monochloropropane diol, erucic acid, and trans-fatty acids, relevant for mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids. The assessment of food additives intended to be used in food for infants below 16 weeks of age revealed that in most cases the maximum permitted regulatory levels of the food additive would result in an exposure which does not raise health concerns, besides lecithins and locust bean gum. However, the content of impurities with a toxic potential at the regulatory permitted levels is of concern for all food additives which indicates the need for lowering those levels.

Современные представления о компонентном соотношении состава грудного молока у матерей, родивших преждевременно и в срок

To date, there have been sufficient data and information on the role of breast milk in nutrition, functional development of the newborn and the formation of immune responses. However, the influence of various factors on the component composition of breast milk remains poorly understood. This review presents data on the qualitative and quantitative changes in various organic and inorganic compounds in breast milk depending on the degree of prematurity of the newborn. In preterm birth and early onset of lactation, activation of the sialic acid production system may result in increased production of sialylated oligosaccharides involved in nervous system development. There are also contradictions in the information concerning the antioxidant content in breast milk. Some reports suggest that the milk of women who gave birth prematurely contains more antioxidants than that of women who gave birth at term. In contrast, other studies demonstrate a lower overall antioxidant function of breast milk in the early stages of lactation. Epidermal growth factor plays a significant role in providing protection against intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, hemorrhagic shock, and necrotizing enterocolitis. This article reviews domestic and foreign literature for the period 2012–2022 and aims to systematize the information on the composition of breast milk in women who gave birth at term and prematurely. Key words: breast milk, composition, preterm infants, full-term infants

Assessment of dextromethorphan concentration in human breast milk

Assessment of dextromethorphan concentration in human breast milk

Analysis of the mature milk composition of women giving birth prematurely and on time

Introduction: The composition of breast milk is not consistent; its variability is determined by the nutritional needs of the baby: duration of pregnancy, phases of a single feeding, lactation period, variability of fat concentration.&#x0D; The aim: To assess the energy and essential nutrients content in mature milk from mothers delivering preterm and full-term infants.&#x0D; Material and methods: 75 women participated in the study, at 4 weeks postpartum. The study sample was divided into three groups according to the duration of pregnancy: G1&gt;=32 weeks of pregnancy, G2) 33-36 weeks of pregnancy, G3) &lt;=37 weeks of pregnancy. The analysis of breast milk composition was performed with the Miris Human Milk Analysis analyser.&#x0D; Results: The pregnancy duration of a sample of women participating in the study does not differentiate the nutritional composition and energy content in breast milk (p&gt;0.05) analysed in the fourth week of lactation.&#x0D; Conclusions: The assessment of the milk from women who gave birth on time and prematurely showed no significant differences in protein, fats, carbohydrates and energy content considering the same stage of lactation. However, it should be emphasised that not only is human milk considered to be a nutrient but also functional food. Due to the content of enzymes, hormones and growth factors, breast milk has a protective function. It is a part of treatment for premature babies. Nevertheless, the results of our study indicate the need for further research measuring the macronutrients of human milk in order to individualize more the nutritional approach for a particularly demanding group of newborns, which may help optimize their growth and development.