Content Area Courses Research Articles

Teacher Learning and Standards-Based Instruction

The topic of standards-based instruction is currently at the forefront of conversations about education at every level, including teacher education and professional development. The proliferation of state curriculum standards over the past decade and the recent development of the Common Core State (CCSS) for English/Language Arts and Mathematics as well as the release of the second draft of the Next Generation Science (NGSS) in January 2013 have fueled this conversation. Standards-based curriculum and assessment, and the accompanying accountability associated with their implementation, place considerable pressure on preservice and inservice teacher educators to enable teachers to effectively incorporate the standards into instruction. The more recent content standards emphasize student depth of knowledge, higher order thinking, and adaptive application that places great demands on the kind of teaching skills that few teachers currently possess (Lampert, this issue) and will require particular attention to the type of professional development needed for both preservice and inservice teachers (Moon, Michaels, & Reiser, 2012). In our Call for Manuscripts for this theme issue, we invited empirical or conceptual manuscripts addressing teacher professional development in the context of reforms such as CCSS. Our intent was to move the community forward in understanding and studying the nature and impact of professional development focused on recent standards-based curricular reforms. Three articles emerged which addressed the topic either directly through (a) design of professional development programs for CCSS (Marrongelle, this issue) or indirectly through (b) examination of the relationship between teacher education and the alignment of instruction with standards (Polikoff, this issue) and (c) examination of teacher education strategies to develop the kind of teaching practices associated with rigorous curricular reforms (Lampert, this issue). Overview of Features and Articles This issue is divided conceptually into three parts. The first part represents the theme of standards-based instruction discussed previously and features three articles. The first article, Scaling up Professional Development in an Era of Common State Standards by Karen Marrongelle, Paola Sztajn, and Margaret Smith, describes the process and outcomes of a project to generate design recommendations for professional development programs to support CCSS in mathematics (CCSSM). While the focus is mathematics, the authors argue that the process and many of the elements are applicable to other content areas. The project involved the collaboration of practitioners and researchers representing a mixture of expertise (math, math education, assessment, policy, equity, and systems-thinking) and resulted in a set of recommendations for large-scale, systems-level professional development aligned with CCSSM. The second article, Education, Experience, and the Practice of Aligned Instruction by Morgan Polikoff uses a large-scale survey approach to examine the relationship between teacher education and experiences and teacher reports of their content coverage in comparison with content analyses of state standards. The author found that more experienced teachers, beyond the 1st year and up to 11 years of experience, with more content area courses exhibited more aligned instruction. However, the effects were small and the author suggests that other factors such as work environment and student characteristics and consideration of more precise measures of teacher education may be needed. The findings indicate that more professional development support for standards implementation may be needed for preservice and 1st-year teachers as well as more experienced teachers. The last theme article, Keeping It Complex: Using Rehearsals to Support Novice Teacher Learning of Ambitious Teaching by Lampert, Franke, Kazemi, Ghousseini, Turrou, Beasly, Cunard, and Crowe, provides a very different approach to standards-based instruction. …

Using Study Skills to Become Independent Learners in Secondary Content Classes

Adolescent students with learning disabilities (LD) often have a difficult time in secondary general education classes for a variety of reasons. One reason is the lack of study skills necessary to successfully navigate through content area courses. As secondary students with LD spend more time in the general education classroom, it is important for them to learn and apply these study skills that help them become independent learners. There are many skills that fall under the broad term of study skills; in this article, five strategies that fall under the umbrella term of study skills are discussed: guidelines for using the explicit instruction model for teaching study habits, time management, self-management, obtaining information from textbooks and lectures, and interpreting visual aids.

Teacher Efficacy as a Conduit for Enhancing Attitudes Toward Teaching Reading to African-American Students

Through this study the authors aimed to determine the impact of a reading course and tutoring for elementary school youth enrolled in an after-school program in a low-income community. They conclude that multicultural field-based tutoring experiences connected to a content area course can increase teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and teacher efficacy when teaching low-income, African-American students.

Explicit Vocabulary Instruction in an English Content-Area Course with University Student Teachers: When Comprehensible Input Needs to Be Comprehended.

This action research study explores explicit vocabulary instruction in an L2 (English) content-area course with a group of university student teachers. The study reviews several positions on the treatment of vocabulary in L2 contexts. The researcher takes up the teaching of explicit vocabulary through class activities and the students’ completion of vocabulary entries in a Word Study notebook. The data collection procedures included the teacher´s lesson plans, the students´ Word Study entries, and their opinions on both their vocabulary learning and their notebook completion through a final interview. Research findings reveal that the Word Study notebook did contribute to students’ learning since they had a grasp of the vocabulary used in the class in terms of participating in the instructional conversations led by the professor and doing the class activities.

“I write it in a way that people can read it”: How teachers and adolescent L2 writers describe content area writing

Adolescent writers in second language settings often spend the majority of their school days in content area courses, such as math, science, and social studies, where they must negotiate challenging literacy tasks in their second languages with little explicit writing instruction. While genre scholars have built an extensive body of knowledge about texts and textual practices across disciplines, little is known about how linguistically diverse secondary students and their teachers understand school-based writing in different content areas. Taken from a larger ethnographic study of adolescent second language writers’ negotiation of writing tasks across the curriculum, this article explores the ways in which four students and their teachers describe their expectations for content area writing tasks assigned and completed in humanities and biology courses. Based upon interviews, classroom observations, and student texts, this article suggests that adolescent L2 writers and their teachers in this study vary in their descriptions of content area writing, that students may or may not see themselves in the writing roles that teachers envision for them, and that there are both social and linguistic issues underlying students’ decisions to use certain types of language on writing tasks. These findings suggest that adolescent L2 writers would benefit from content area writing instruction that draws upon content area teachers’ existing expertise and encourages discussion among teachers and students about writing.

Toward Democratic Discourse: Scaffolding Student-Led Discussions in the Social Studies

Background/Context Discussion in classrooms has been cited as an activity integral to active participation in a democracy. Much research into classroom practice reveals that recitation, not discussion, is the most common form of classroom discourse. How teachers conceive of discussion, what they actually do when they attempt discussion with students, and how they are taught to implement discussions are all inquiries that uncover the actual workings of discussion within classrooms. This article addresses students’ experiences in discussion and how one teacher scaffolds instruction in discussion in order to achieve a more democratic discourse in her classroom. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study This article traces one teacher's research into what students experience during class discussions and how their responses led her to inquire into her own practice of implementing discussion-based activities in a content-area course. She seeks a more “democratic” classroom in which genuine discussion among equal peers is possible because the skills underlying discussion are taught. Scaffolding the teaching of discussion skills throughout a year of a world studies class allowed for students to take a more active and engaged role in discussion and expand their vision of active participation and a “good” discussion while grounding their discussion in historical content. Setting A public selective enrollment secondary school in Chicago was the site of this action research. Population/Participants/Subjects Eighty-eight students enrolled in ninth-grade Honors World Studies took part in this study. Research Design This study uses action research, or teacher inquiry into classroom practices and instructional responses to findings. Its data are qualitative in nature. Data Collection and Analysis Data were collected in the form of student reflections after discussions with peers, teacher observations during student-led discussions, and student–teacher debriefings after discussion activities.

CLIL research at Universidad de la Sabana in Colombia

As the number of content-area course offerings has increased at the University of La Sabana, the need for support of teachers and students has also increased in demand. Through multiple applications of an action research process, this research seeks to identify effective instructional strategies, thus leading to an applicable instructional model. This article describes the proposal put forth and its research objectives and methodology.

Ensuring Content-Area Learning by Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

Difficult challenges face secondary students with LD and their teachers with regard to these students' participation and success in required general education classes. Recently, instructional methods and materials have been developed and validated for promoting these students' success. Some of them focus on how general education teachers plan and teach their content-area courses; others focus on giving students the strategies they need to respond independently to the demands of their courses. This article describes these instructional methods, a service-delivery model for implementing these interventions in secondary schools, and professional-development mechanisms and administrative support that must be in place for the model to be maintained effectively.

Predicting Performance in a Community College Content-Area Course from Academic Skill Level

Binary logistic regression analyses were performed on institutional data from a large urban community college in order to identify predictors of performance in a content course (psychology) that had high literacy demands. It was found that students who completed college English were more likely to pass the content course than students with developmental-level English skills. Also, academically underprepared students who completed developmental English passed the content course at the same rate as students who entered the college with college-level skills. Thus, once students' current level of literacy skill, measured by the highest English course completed, was considered, their initial literacy level upon entry in college was not predictive of achievement in the content course. This finding suggests that the English courses completed by students between the time of college entry and content course enrollment may have had a positive effect on their achievement in the content course.

Helping Preservice Content-Area Teachers Relate to English Language Learners: An Investigation of Attitudes and Beliefs

In the United States and Canada, as in many other countries, it has become common for teachers not specifically trained in English as a second language (ESL) to have immigrant and minority language students in their classrooms. These students, who are generally learning English along with the culture of their new countries, present many challenges for their teachers, who are often not appropriately trained to meet their needs. Often teachers of mathematics, science, and other content-area courses feel less than prepared for these students and lack the skills needed to accommodate instruction to their unique needs. In addition, these same teachers often harbor attitudes and beliefs about immigrant students that are not conducive to the development of a safe learning environment and are difficult to alter. This article describes how a community-based service-learning project (CBSL) was used to begin to investigate the attitudes and beliefs of preservice content-area teachers toward English language learners (ELLs). In this study many participants exhibited some level of change in their attitudes about working with ELLs.

A Correlation Analysis of English Language Proficiency and Content-Area Cognitive Skills: A Gulf Region Perspective

Literature is replete with studies indicating the need to develop students’ language skills; however, little research has emphasized the importance of language proficiency in enhancing learning or performance in specific content-area courses. This study investigates whether a student’s English language proficiency can be associated with her performance in specific cognitive skills (knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis) in an introductory accounting course. Data is summarized from students’ performance on their first financial accounting examination as well as from students’ academic history records as maintained by the university. A correlation analysis of the cognitive skills score with student language proficiency is used to identify initial relationships; and multiple regression analysis is subsequently used to identify interrelations between combined multiple dependent variables and the language proficiency variables. While the results show no association between TOEFL and overall performance, the mean of the English composition courses do show a significant association with knowledge and comprehension cognitive skills scores on the first financial accounting course. No associations are attached to the application and analysis cognitive skills. The results are meaningful to faculty in balancing language proficiency with quality instruction in content-area courses.

Effects of Computer-Based Cognitive Mapping on Reading Comprehension for Students with Emotional Behavior Disorders

Three students with behavior disorders who exhibited difficulty with reading in content area courses learned to use a computer program to create cognitive maps of the reading material required for class. Using a modified multiple-probe design across behaviors or stimulus sets, replicated across students, allowed for the evaluation of student performance on written and oral quizzes covering content area information. All students improved reading comprehension of content material with this intervention, and were able to read their textbooks independent of teacher assistance or tutelage. These findings are significant because students who previously struggled with learning class material from text-based presentation can successfully accomplish these tasks given cognitive mapping reading strategy and access to a computer to create the cognitive maps.

The Discursive Co-construction of Knowledge, Identity, and Difference: An Ethnography of Communication in the High School Mainstream

This article describes the ethnography of communication as a viable, context-and culture-sensitive method for conducting research on classroom discourse. I first provide an overview of the method and its role in applied linguistics research and then present a study of discourse in mainstream high school classes with a large proportion of students who speak English as a second language. Drawing on social constructivist views of language learning and socialization that recognize the role of participation in language-mediated activities in people's development as fully competent members of sociocultural groups, I examine the macro- and micro-level contexts of communication within one content-area course. I focus on the discourse and interactional features associated with teacher-led whole-class discussions, examining the sequential organization of talk, including turn-taking and other features of participation, and explicit and implicit references to cultural identity and difference. The paper reveals the contradictions and tensions in classroom discourse and in a teacher's attempts to foster respect for cultural identity and difference in a linguistically and socioculturally heterogeneous discourse community. I conclude with a poststructural commentary on the ethnography of communication.

Teaching the History of Science to Students with Learning Disabilities

The purpose of this article is to present a lesson template designed to engage students in a specific science event from the past in a manner that relates to the students' lives and experiences. Making activities relevant to students aids in retention of science knowledge and helps promote active participation in the activity. This student-focused approach is characterized by fast-paced, student-centered, highly motivating activities that promote cognitive and affective growth. It demonstrates that instruction anchored in real-life situations promotes higher-level thinking and the development of reasoning skills (Meese, 2001). Such activities empower students with learning disabilities to achieve at a high level in science and other content area courses (Phillips, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlet, 1996). Similar activities have been found to increase comprehension among students with mild cognitive and intellectual disabilities (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000). In addition, the guided questioning format assists them in developing inquiry skills that lay the foundation for future inquiry and can be applied throughout the curriculum. In addition to students with learning disabilities, this activity is also appropriate for students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), allowing them to focus on class work while actively moving about the classroom engaged in the role-play (Williams & Hounshell, 1998).

Using a Reading Strategy to Foster Active Learning in Content Area Courses

Research indicates that active learning is desirable in the college classroom in lieu of a passive lecture style. The dilemma of many professors is how to introduce active learning in a traditional lecture course. K-W-L, a reading strategy, which promotes active reading, is adapted to facilitate active learning in the traditional lecture classroom. This strategy facilitates critical thinking, professor-student interaction and retention in the course and in college.

Ensuring Content–Area Learning by Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

Three factors tied with secondary student success in content–area reading are demonstrated: (a) validated teacher–focused and student–focused interventions, (b) integrated and comprehensive service delivery systems, and (c) well–designed, data–based professional developmental programs. Difficult challenges face secondary students with LD and their teachers with regard to these students’ participation and success in required general education classes. Recently, instructional methods and materials have been developed and validated for promoting these students’ success. Some of them focus on how general education teachers plan and teach their content–area courses; others focus on giving students the strategies they need to respond independently to the demands of their courses. This article describes these instructional methods, a service–delivery model for implementing these interventions in secondary schools, and professional–development mechanisms and administrative support that must be in place for the model to be maintained effectively.

Addressing prerequisite mathematics needs— a case study in introductory economics

In the development of an individual's education, skills developed at one stage are prerequisites for success at the next stage. Within the domain of mathematics there are many such sequential relationships in skill development and, more broadly, mathematical skills are often prerequisites for success in subsequent content‐area courses. Unfortunately, many content‐area teachers simply assume a level of math skills and then bemoan the failure of their students, or teach to the lowest common denominator, or refer apparently weak students to alternative courses. In this piece we offer another model for addressing prerequisite mathematics needs. It is one in which a small set of prerequisite skills for the content course (in our case, introductory economics) are identified, this set is assessed, and students at the margin are tuned up for success. We believe this model is a more efficient and effective way of dealing with mathematical skill needs in content area courses. Our model is described and the results of empirical testing of its success are presented.

Is this collaboration?

AbstractThis chapter discusses the characteristics that successful collaborative learning situations share and oflers suggestions for incorporating these characteristics into content area courses.

Reading in mathematics: Middle school mathematics teachers’ beliefs and practices

Abstract The purpose of this descriptive study was to investigate mathematics teachers’ beliefs about the role reading plays in mathematics learning and about their role in helping students deal with the reading of mathematics. Ninety‐nine middle grades mathematics teachers responded to the Mathematics and Reading Questionnaire designed to address these issues. Results indicated that the mathematics teachers who participated in the study were generally undecided in their beliefs about the role reading plays in mathematics learning and about the role they should play in helping students deal with the reading of mathematics. Their undeddedness is consistent with the fact that the teachers tended not to view their reading in the content area courses as being beneficial to mathematics teachers.

Measuring the affective and cognitive growth of regularly admitted and developmental studies students using thelearning and study strategies inventory(LASSI)

Abstract The LASSI (Weinstein, Schulte, & Palmer, 1987) is a standardized self‐report measure designed to assess college students’ use of learning strategies. This study sought to investigate the utility of LASSI as a means of measuring college students’ cognitive and affective growth following a study strategies course. In addition, the study evaluated LASSI's predictive ability by examining the subject's grades in subsequent content area courses. Seventy‐one regularly‐admitted (RAS) and 168 Developmental Studies (DSS) subjects from two universities participated in the study. All subjects took the LASSI as a pre and posttest measure and participated in eight weeks of study strategy instruction. The results indicated cognitive and affective growth for both the RAS and DSS. Though the LASSI was significantly predictive of the RAS's grade point average in regular courses, no scale or combination of scales was predictive of courses grades for the DSS. It was concluded that more research is needed before LASS...