Content Area Classrooms Research Articles

Tracking movement toward academic language in multilingual classrooms

Learning history depends heavily on language and cultural references that students supposedly already know. Understanding how young people from multilingual backgrounds develop language in content area classrooms can help us better assist students to achieve higher levels of literacy needed to understand discipline-specific knowledge. Using the conceptual framework and analytic tools of Systemic Functional Linguistics (Halliday, 1994) we analyze the changes in lexico-grammatical and discourse-semantic choices in learners' responses to two primary source history texts as indexes of academic language development. The data comes from a larger study that explored the integration of text analysis to history lessons focusing on primary sources and documenting the impact of the intervention on students' disciplinary literacy development. In this paper, we focus on the configuration of linguistic indices that serve to track academic language development. The analysis shows changes in students' linguistic choices that realize ways of reasoning and arguing typical of history. The findings show that it is important to document academic language development in qualitative ways that capture the complexity of development considering constellations of linguistic features and how they function to serve discipline-specific ways of making meaning.

Translanguaging, identity, and learning: science teachers as engaged language planners

With shifts in demographics leading to increasingly diverse student populations, and pressures from state educational accountability offices to streamline budgets and improve test scores, teachers at the secondary level are increasingly challenged to support English learners new to US schools. Teachers, often with minimal understanding of second language learning processes and ways of adapting content materials to meet the needs of language learners, become de facto language planners. Drawing on situated data from classroom activities and interviews with district personnel and teachers, this paper attempts to conceptually reconsider what language/culture and translanguaging/transcultural flows mean in secondary content area classrooms. By examining how teachers organize their practices and comparing these practices with state expectations in the area of content and language knowledge, this paper challenges current educational policy and planning efforts which seek to codify what constitutes language and what constitutes success in secondary school without taking students as cultural beings into account. The study concludes with suggestions for teacher education that support teachers developing as language planners.

Codeswitching: Linguistic and literacy understanding of teaching dilemmas in multilingual classrooms

This paper offers a linguistic background on what codeswitching (CS) is, as well as comparative models of accounting for it. The linguistic and sociolinguistic accounts are followed by a synthesis of the existing research on educational uses of CS, in both foreign language (FL), second language learning, and multilingual content area classrooms. Finally, the paper offers a recommendation based on the research synthesis and anchored in observational data from South African classrooms in the Western Cape region. The recommendation calls for careful adoption of linguistic ecology in classrooms.

Beyond Word Meaning

A well-developed academic vocabulary is foundational for understanding academic texts used in elementary and secondary classrooms. In-depth word knowledge is critical to understanding the abstract concepts and complex language structures of text. Students with learning disabilities and English language learners both characteristically have limited vocabularies, thus hindering their understanding of academic texts and ultimately their mastery of content material. These students are increasingly placed in general education classrooms, and content area teachers are tasked with developing their academic vocabulary with little training. This article explores the type of in-depth word knowledge (i.e., meaning, word structure, and grammatical placement) students with learning disabilities and English language learners need in order to understand and communicate in the content area classrooms. It also provides specific strategies for classroom implementation.

Continuing with the Promise of “Scratch” in the Applied Linguistics Classroom

Students and student-teachers of applied linguistics (LN400/G) taught at the University of Guam continue to explore the promise of SCRATCH, a free downloadable program from MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). For the past three fall semesters, students and student-teachers were required to design class projects with Scratch. They were instructed to integrate principles of second language teaching/learning and or other subfields of applied linguistics into their projects, and told that they should be able to use these in the language, literature, or other content area classroom. A CD Rom of their individual projects, accompanied by written reports evaluating SCRATCH, were submitted at the end of each semester. In Fall 2012, students were required to integrate their computer projects into their lesson plans for elementary, middle, and or high school students. This presentation will propose criteria for evaluating students’ computer projects and summarize their evaluations of and comments about MIT's SCRATCH computer program.

Learning to Write in Middle School?

Despite the emphasis on increasing the frequency with which students engage in analytic writing, we know very little about the ‘writing diet’ of adolescents. Student notebooks, used as a daily record of in-class work, provide one source of evidence about the diversity of writing expectations that students face. Through careful examination of the notebooks written by four middle-graders in 12 content area classrooms (290 texts), the present study help us to understand the ways in which these writers were acclimatized in one school year to the norms of writing in these diverse disciplinary contexts. In particular, results of this study suggest that adolescent writers may be afforded little opportunity to produce cognitively challenging genres, such as analytic essays. Notably, in content area classrooms, students engaged in very little extended writing.

Using Alternate Texts to Support Comprehension of the Core Content Curriculum

Although students with learning disabilities are likely to be included in general education content area classrooms, they often experience difficulties in these settings because of struggles in reading text. Curriculum complexity and difficulty accessing texts increase as students progress to the higher grades. This creates a barrier for adolescents with learning disabilities in reading to experience success in general education content area classrooms. This article helps teachers support adolescents with learning disabilities in reading to succeed with content area curriculum by incorporating readability-controlled alternate texts (e.g., trade books and magazines) during instruction. A rationale for the need to expose adolescents with learning disabilities in reading to alternate content area texts that they can read on their level is provided. Ideas for how teachers may structure planning and instruction are also discussed.

The Experience of a Content-Area Classroom: Investigating Teacher Candidates' Beliefs about Reading

The Experience of a Content-Area Classroom: Investigating Teacher Candidates' Beliefs about Reading

Effects of job-embedded professional development on inclusion of students with disabilities in content area classrooms: results of a three-year study

During the mid-1990s, members of the global education community issued the Salamanca Statement that described inclusive schools as effective educational environments that also combat discrimination. Since that time, considerable progress has been made in moving students with disabilities from separate placements to inclusive settings. In the USA, nearly 10% of the school-aged population needs special education services and of that group, 96% are educated in general education classrooms 80% of the time. Placement of such large numbers of students with disabilities has increased the diversity of the student body and the complexity of teaching of core curriculum. For teachers and students to be successful, teachers need on-going professional development. This paper explores the efficacy of a Job-Embedded Professional Development (JEPD) model in six schools (urban, suburban and rural) that had made a commitment towards including all students with significant disabilities in general education core curriculum. Results are discussed for the six schools as well as for students identified as displaying behaviour disorders, autism or intellectual disabilities.

Points on a Continuum: ESL Teachers Reporting on Collaboration

Today's K–12 English as a second language (ESL) teachers are encouraged to coplan or coteach with content teachers in order to support English language learners, thus moving English language support into the content area classroom, through push‐in or coteaching rather than the pull‐out model. However, results from a questionnaire of 72 K–12 ESL teachers across a wide range of settings suggest that collaboration may or may not take place within any of these models and can best be understood in terms of the intersection of the variables of frequency (limited to extensive) as well as type of practice (formal to informal). Results of this study have implications for administrator professional learning, teacher education, and teacher leadership.

Note-Taking Techniques for Students With Disabilities

This article provides a synthesis of note-taking research among students with learning disabilities or other high-incidence disabilities. A search of the professional literature between 1980 and 2010 yielded nine intervention studies, which were evaluated either in terms of effect size or percentage of nonoverlapping data. The studies examined three different note-taking techniques used by students during lectures and included 125 students of varying disabilities. Findings revealed that students who used note-taking techniques were effective at increasing scores on measures of achievement and the quality and quantity of notes recorded. Limitations and implications of note-taking techniques for content-area classrooms are discussed.

(Re)imagining Literacy and Teacher Preparation Through Collaboration

This article reports the outcomes of the first 3 years of an ongoing participatory action research (PAR) project that brought together literacy and content-area teacher educators. The purpose of our collaboration was two-fold: (a) to develop shared understandings or theories related to literacy and the place of literacy instruction in content-area classrooms, and (b) to make changes to our work with preservice teachers in order to prepare them to support adolescents’ content learning and discipline-specific literacy development. The findings reveal that the collaborative activities allowed participants to embrace broad notions of text and literacy that are useful in making sense of disciplinary aims and pedagogy. Furthermore, as teacher educators came to shift their thinking about literacy and disciplinary learning and teaching, their work with preservice teachers changed. Implications for future collaborative activities to promote content-area literacy are discussed.

The explicit teaching of reading comprehension in science class: A pilot professional development program

This pilot study aimed to address persistent gaps in the research regarding effective professional development models associated with reading comprehension pedagogy in content area classrooms (science). An appropriate instructional model was developed, (Do-Read-Do) which attempts to embed the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies within a science investigation. This model was then explored in workshops, discussion groups and in reciprocal in-class coaching situations over the course of a semester in a case study school. Findings highlighted many positive aspects of the professional development program such as the use of the gradual release of responsibility model that included modeling, practical application of the new methodology (both within the workshop and in the actual classroom) and ample opportunities for discussion and reflection. Despite some initial difficulties with the instructional model, it proved to be an effective method of embedding explicit reading comprehension instruction within a science investigation.

The Old Man and the Sea: Navigating the Gulf between Special Educators and the Content Area Classroom

The special educator in the content area classroom often experiences an ill‐defined role, which can translate into marginalization within instructional settings. Indeed, most students with learning disabilities (LD) receive content area instruction from a general education teacher with the support of a special educator. However, the literacy demands of the respective content areas often present content specific challenges for students with language‐based disabilities and their teachers. To date, proposed content area literacy interventions have not addressed the specific language‐based needs of students with LD. In this article, we highlight the similarities among history, science, English language arts, and mathematics texts from a language perspective, and present strategies specifically targeting students’ background knowledge. We also provide recommendations to researchers and practitioners for improving content area learning.

From Resistance to Advocacy for Math Literacy: One Teacher's Literacy Identity Transformation

AbstractSecondary preservice teachers often articulate the belief that literacy instruction is irrelevant in their future content‐area classrooms. Resistance is not a new concern in literacy teacher education programs, but the longevity of this belief and the absence of content area literacy instruction in the majority of secondary classrooms are distressing realities. This article documents one math teacher's initial negative beliefs about literacy instruction and his teacher literacy identity transformation to openly embrace and advocate for literacy instruction. In order for beliefs to shift regarding content area literacy instruction in secondary social and cultural contexts, teacher educators must focus on the developing teacher literacy identities of the preservice teachers sitting in their classrooms; that is, their conscious and confident view of self as responsible for and in control of improving the literacy learning of self and the competency to enact engagements to guide the literacy learning of students.

Video Modeling of Cooperative Discussion Group Behaviors with Students with Learning Disabilities in a Secondary Content-Area Classroom

Peer-mediated instructional strategies such as cooperative learning are commonly used in general education classrooms in secondary schools; however, students with disabilities often lack the group interaction and discussion skills necessary to fully benefit from evidence-based interventions. The present study used a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the use of video modeling to promote the cooperative behaviors and higher level discussion skills of high school students with learning disabilities participating in a Numbered Heads Together (NHT) group discussion strategy in a secondary social studies class. Results indicate that the simple technological intervention of video modeling effectively and efficiently promoted the use of group social skills and discussion skills among students with learning problems who experience difficulty with peer-mediated instructional strategies in secondary content-area classes.

Wikis: Promoting Collaborative Literacy through Affordable Technology in Content-Area Classrooms

Educators may realize the impact technology has on students, but may be ill equipped to integrate high-tech devices into the classroom in an affordable way. Educators can capitalize on students’ experience with technology by incorporating wikis, a collaborative webpage, into classroom instruction. Studies indicate that wiki technology can greatly enhance student collaboration and build content-area literacy skills. There are several research-based applications for implementing wiki technology into content-area classrooms. However, educators must consider the effect of wikis on curricula before integrating wikis into the classroom.

The Negative Consequences of Becoming a Good Reader: Identity Theory as a Lens for Understanding Struggling Readers, Teachers, and Reading Instruction

Background/Context The majority of middle school students in U.S. schools are struggling readers and lack the reading abilities needed to successfully comprehend texts, complete reading-related assignments, and learn subject matter content. Researchers have suggested that struggling readers’ comprehension abilities can be improved if their subject-matter teachers provide them with appropriate skill and strategy instruction, as well as regular opportunities to read and discuss texts. However, struggling readers may choose not to apply the reading skills they have been taught and may approach reading tasks in ways that they know prevent them from learning content and that marginalize their abilities to grow as readers. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study The multiple case study presented here was intended to explore how middle school struggling readers and their content-area teachers made decisions about how to work with classroom reading tasks and each other over a period of one academic year. A case study approach allowed for the actions that took place to be closely documented. Theories of identity, including models of identity, identity capital, and discursive identity, framed the analysis for this study and were used to interpret the research questions. The research questions were: (1) How do middle school teachers interact with struggling readers in relation to the reading task demands of their classrooms? (2) How do middle school struggling readers interact with the reading task demands of their content-area classrooms? Setting This study took place in one sixth-grade social studies classroom, one seventh-grade mathematics classroom, and one eighth-grade science classroom. Population/Participants/Subjects The participants were: (a) Sarah and Mrs. O'Reilly in sixth grade, (b) Nicole and Mrs. Harding in seventh grade, and (c) Alisa and Mrs. Baker in eighth grade. Research Design This was a descriptive year-long multiple case study. Data sources included biweekly observations, questionnaires, interviews, and graded class work. Findings Teachers’ interactions with struggling readers were based on (a) their models of identity for what it meant to become a good reader and (b) the discursive identities they created for their students based on their models of identity. Students’ interactions with classroom reading tasks were based on (a) how they identified themselves as readers and (b) their goal to prevent their peers, teachers, or family members from constructing a discursive identity of them as poor readers.

Cognitive Strategy Instruction for Adolescents: What We Know about the Promise, What We Don't Know about the Potential

"Strategy instruction" is quickly becoming one of the most common — and perhaps the most commonly misunderstood — components of adolescent literacy research and practice. In this essay, veteran teacher educator Mark Conley argues that a particular type of strategy instruction known as cognitive strategy instruction holds great promise for improving adolescents' reading, writing, and thinking across content areas. However, he further suggests that we do not yet have the research needed to adequately understand and maximize the potential of cognitive strategy instruction in secondary content-area classrooms. After situating cognitive strategy instruction in the larger context of research on adolescent literacy and school-to-work transitions, Conley provides classroom examples of cognitive strategy instruction, demonstrates the need for meaningful integration of cognitive strategies in teacher education, and recommends specific directions for future research needed to understand and maximize the benefits of cognitive strategy instruction for adolescents.

Academic Achievement and Class Placement in High School: Do Students with Learning Disabilities Achieve More in One Class Placement Than Another?

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine classroom placement, inclusive versus non-inclusive, relative to the academic performance of students with specific learning disabilities in secondary content area classrooms. Fifty-seven high school students with learning disabilities were assessed using the Grade Level Short Form of the Multilevel Academic Survey Test (MAST). Their reading and math scores were examined relative to each student's grade level, number of general and special education classes attended, and types of placement (i.e., inclusive or non-inclusive setting). The results revealed no statistically significant evidence to indicate that students' academic achievement varied based on inclusive versus non-inclusive placement. The only statistically significant differences observed regarded participants enrolled in a general education literature class compared to those participants placed in a special education setting for literature. Implications for practice, limitations of the study, and considerations for future research are discussed. ********** Recent trends reveal that students with specific learning disabilities (SLD) are increasingly educated in general education classrooms, while the number receiving instruction in resource rooms or separate classes has decreased substantially (Holloway, 2001). Despite the increase in students with disabilities placed in general education settings there is limited research, particularly at the secondary level, to suggest where students with SLD achieve more academically. Of the many issues related to the integration or inclusion of students with disabilities into general education classrooms, there is none more important than the effects of placement on students' learning and social relations with classmates (Baker, Wang, & Walberg, 1995). The research literature reviewed for this study was mixed regarding whether academic outcomes for students with disabilities are improved in inclusive classroom settings. Previous research suggested that students with SLD in elementary schools achieve more academically in inclusive programs versus non-inclusive programs (Banerji & Dailey, 1995; Waldron & McLeskey, 1998). Other studies suggested that middle school students achieve more academically in inclusive programs (Rea, McLaughlin, & Walther-Thomas, 2002). For example, Rea et al. (2002) reported that students with disabilities had higher grades, fewer behavioral infractions, and attended school more often than students educated in non-inclusive programs. In contrast, a number of other studies concluded that students with disabilities achieved more in inclusive classroom settings (Baker, et al., 1995; Madden & Slavin, 1983; Carlberg & Kavale, 1980). The only certainty regarding the effects of class placement is that there is no consensus. Researchers have drawn vastly different conclusions (Carlberg & Kavale, 1980) such as: (a) Students with severe learning disabilities and emotional and behavioral disorders may achieve more in special classrooms (Carlberg & Kavale, 1980); (b) Students with disabilities may achieve more academically in programs that combine the inclusive model with the resource model as opposed to either model on its own (Holloway, 2001); and (c) Inclusive versus non-inclusive placements produce no differences in the academic achievement of students with disabilities (Affleck, Madge, Adams, & Lavenbraun, 1988; Manset & Semmel, 1997; Waldron & McLeskey, 1998). Another perspective voiced is that the frequently posed question of class placement is the wrong question to consider (Leinhardt & Palloy, 1982; Zigmond, 2003; Hocutt, 1996). Researchers taking this position point out that the evidence is inconclusive on whether students with disabilities achieve more in one instructional setting as opposed to another, and contend that questions regarding class placement for students with disabilities are at odds with a focus on individualized educational planning. …