Aflatoxin B1 Contamination Levels Research Articles

Aflatoxin B1 contamination in porridge formulations for children and ingredients sourced from selected markets in Rwanda

Providing safe and nutritious food for children globally is a challenge. In Rwanda, an initiative was introduced in 2018 to tackle chronic malnutrition by offering fortified porridge flour to economically disadvantaged families during critical periods. However, flour-based products in the sub-region have caused public health concerns following aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination. This study analyzed the levels of AFB1 in 197 porridge formulations from health centers, and 248 samples of porridge ingredients from open markets in three districts of Rwanda. Samples were collected between June 2021 and December 2022 and analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. Of the 197 samples from health centers, 97.9 and 89.8% exceeded the European Union maximum limits for baby foods and foods for special medical purposes (0.1 μg/kg), and cereals and nuts (2 μg/kg), respectively with an average contamination level of 2.77 μg/kg (±0.98). Only four samples exceeded the East African Community maximum limits of 5 μg/kg for AFB1. Samples from open markets that exceeded the European Union and East African community limits of 0.1 μg/kg, 2 μg/kg, and 5 μg/kg ranged from 17 to 100%, 0 to 100%, and 0 to 100%, respectively. Site and processing significantly influenced levels of AFB1 contamination in open-market samples. The mean AFB1 levels were 17.85 μg/kg (±70.25) in Burera District, 36.04 μg/kg (±85.59) in Huye District, and 9.01 μg/kg (±18.49) in Nyarugenge District. The average AFB1 levels significantly varied between different products. Peanut samples showed higher contamination levels of 56.79 and 99.08 μg/kg for grain and flour, respectively. Flour samples in general had a higher mean of 51.65 μg/kg (±105.75), compared to grain samples, 16.5 μg/kg (±44). Thus, there are potential health risks associated with chronic exposure to AFB1 in children consuming flour-based foods from health centers and open markets. Interventions to mitigate AFB1 contamination and protect children should focus on food processing practices, implementing strict quality control measures, and raising awareness among stakeholders about the risks of AFB1 in flour-based products provided to children in Rwanda and similar settings. Key words: Flour-based porridge, contamination, aflatoxin B1, children, Rwanda

Dietary garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seeds mitigate the effect of aflatoxin B1 contamination on growth, antioxidant status, AFB1 residues, immune response, and tissue architecture of Oreochromis niloticus

The contamination of fish diets with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) poses a significant hazard to the aquaculture sector. This study investigates the efficacy of supplementing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) diets with garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seeds (GCS) to mitigate the adverse effects of AFB1. For this purpose, a factorial design was utilized, consisting of a 2×3 arrangement of treatments. This included two contamination levels of AFB1: (0 and 2 mg kg−1 diet). Within each contamination level, three dietary levels of GCS were used (0 %, 1 %, and 2 %). The study involved 270 healthy O. niloticus with an average weight of 25.14 ± 0.39 g (45 fish/group and 15 fish/replicate). The duration of the trial was 60 days. The study evaluated growth performance, hematological indices, hepatorenal function, immune and antioxidant indicators, histomorphology of organs, AFB1 residues in muscles, and fish resistance to Aeromonas hydrophila. The results indicated that GCS dietary supplementation significantly counteracted AFB1-induced growth retardation and reduced fish survival. Additionally, GCS effectively reversed the anemia, leukopenia, hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, and hypoglobulinemia that were produced by AFB1. Moreover, GCS dietary supplementation significantly suppressed the AFB1-induced increase in serum bilirubin, hepatic enzymes, kidney damage products, cortisol, and glucose. Additionally, the inclusion of GCS in the fish's diet effectively eliminated the accumulation of AFB1 in their muscles. Moreover, GCS supplementation demonstrated significant restoration of depleted antioxidant and innate immune components induced by AFB1. Furthermore, GCS significantly reduced the degenerative changes in renal, hepatic, splenic, and small intestine tissues caused by AFB1. Fish fed a GCS-fortified diet and exposed to AFB1 displayed restored disease resistance when challenged with A. hydrophila. In conclusion, supplementing Nile tilapia diets with GCS at 2 %, even in the presence the AFB1 contamination, significantly enhanced the fish growth, improved health, and increased disease resistance while reducing AFB1 residues, thereby benefiting consumer health.

Early contamination warning of Aflatoxin B1 in stored maize based on the dynamic change of catalase activity and data fusion of hyperspectral images

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a metabolite of mold with high toxicity, the early warning is of significance to prevent stored maize from AFB1 contamination. Catalase (CAT) is a precursor production before the synthesis of AFB1, which has a significant relationship with the accumulation of AFB1. Hence it is possible to assess the risk level of AFB1 contamination in stored maize according to the change rate of CAT activity, so that to help granary managers avoid AFB1 contamination by regulating storage environment. However, the the chemical detection procedure of CAT activity is complicated, a nondestructive and fast determination method of CAT activity would be more convenient for CAT activity detection and then help to provide the early warning of AFB1 contamination in stored maize. This study proposed to evaluate the contamination risk of AFB1 based on the linkage-warning models of CAT-AFB1 and the nondestructive prediction models of CAT activity. In terms of the dynamic response mechanism between CAT activity of mold and the AFB1 accumulation of maize, the effects of moisture content and storage temperature on the CAT activity of mold and AFB1 accumulation under different storage environment were analyzed, the linkage-warning models of CAT-AFB1 showed that CAT activity of mold and AFB1 content of maize increased exponentially with the change of storage time, proving that CAT activity of mold had the early warning ability for AFB1 contamination. In terms of nondestructive detection of CAT activity, the nondestructive prediction models of CAT activity of mold were developed based on the characteristic spectra and texture information using a novel algorithms namely union partial least squares, which achieved satisfying prediction results with RP2 = 0.924, RMSEP = 0.158, and RPD = 3.65 based on the fused characteristic spectra and texture information of visible-shortwave near-infrared region. This result obtained by this study will provides theoretical basis and technical guarantee for safe storage of maize.

Controlling aflatoxin in maize: The effects of varieties, packaging materials, and agroecological zones

Contamination of crops by aflatoxin is rampant in warm regions worldwide, including Sub-Sahara Africa. Contamination of maize and other foodstuffs with aflatoxin seriously threatens the health of humans and animals. The experimental design used was 2 × 2 × 3 factorial, laid out in a complete randomized design (CRD) consisting of two agroecological zones, two varieties, and three different packaging materials. At the end of the six months of storage, there was no contamination of the maize with aflatoxin G1. Again, there was no contamination of maize stored in the Forest zone with aflatoxin B1. High contamination levels of aflatoxin B1 (8.91 μg/kg), aflatoxin B2 (10.74 μg/kg), and aflatoxin G2 (14.49 μg/kg) occurred in the Wangdataa variety stored in jute. Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags recorded lower contamination levels than jute and polypropylene (PP). Contamination was higher in the Savannah zone than in the Forest zone. The three packaging materials used gave maximum protection to all the maize stored in the Forest against aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin G1. Farmers, traders, and all aggregators of maize in the Savannah zone should be discouraged from using jute bags to store maize in the Savannah zone for an extended period. Opeaburo should be planted and stored in the Savannah zone rather than Wangdataa. Farmers should be encouraged to use PICS bags to store maize in the Savannah zone to control aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, and aflatoxin G2.

Detection of aflatoxin contamination in single kernel almonds using multispectral imaging system

The developed multispectral imaging system was tested in the current study for its detection accuracy of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in single kernel almonds. Based on our previous study, characteristic wavelengths for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were selected from the hyperspectral imaging data and a prototype of almond sorter was designed and developed using multispectral imaging system. Five levels of AFB1 concentrations, viz. 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 μg/kernel were used for testing of the sorter. Artificial neural network (ANN) was used to predict the AFB1 contamination levels and four discriminant models, viz. support vector machine (SVM), logistic regression (LR), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) were analyzed to classify the contaminated kernels from the normal ones. Results indicated that ANN was very efficient in prediction of AFB1 threshold contamination levels of 0.250 µg/g with accuracy of 99.300%, 98.100%, 95.700%, 86.200% and least error rate of 0.042, 0.077, 0.109 µg/g, 0.187 µg/g respectively for training, cross-validation, prediction and testing using external test set data. The two-class LR model accurately discriminated the contaminated from the noncontaminated almonds with a threshold of 0.25 µg/g and the correct classification rate of 90.800% and 95% for cross-validation and external test datasets, respectively. The multispectral imaging system demonstrated its potential application to rapid online detection of AFB1 contamination levels in single almond kernels and discrimination of contaminated kernels at the same time.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in Fresh and Boiled Liver Broiler Chickens in Zaria, Nigeria

There is an increasing concern for the contamination of poultry products with Aspergillus strains, responsible for the aflatoxin production. Therefore, the persistence of aflatoxin B1 was analyzed in 60 fresh liver divided into two-part one remains fresh and the other part boiled from live bird markets in Zaria, Nigeria, using indirect competitive enzyme link immunosorbent Assay (iELISA). A total of 66.7% of fresh liver and 16.7% of boiled liver were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1 above maximum detection limits. The levels of aflatoxin B1 contamination varied in decreasing order as follows: Sabon Gari, Zaria city, Dan Magaji and Tudun wada had aflatoxin level of 66.40 µg/kg, 41.45 µg/kg, 35.25 µg/kg and 29.80 µg/kg, respectively in fresh liver samples. The highest level of aflatoxin B1 in boiled liver was 29.02 µg/kg in Sabon Gari. The persistence of boiling aflatoxin B1 was significant (P < 0.05) in the liver of broilers. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in the liver of slaughtered broilers is dangerous and may adversely affect human health. It was concluded that the high level of AFB1 in birds sold in live-bird markets, meant for slaughter for human consumption may have adverse effects on human health. Strict measures should be adopted to monitor and regulate aflatoxin level in feeds and, subsequently, in edible tissues. Keywords: AFB1, ELISA, Chickens and Liver.

Aflatoxin in cereals and groundnut from small holder farming households in Malawi

ABSTRACT Aflatoxin contamination in commonly consumed cereals and nuts may place children at higher risk of stunting and adults at risk of developing liver cancer. This study investigated knowledge on aflatoxins and the level of aflatoxin B1 contamination in commonly consumed cereals and nuts in Malawi. It also included an examination of the proportion of cereals and nuts contaminated above regulatory maximum limits. Aflatoxin contamination in samples was assessed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Less than half of all households knew that consumption of aflatoxin contaminated grain is associated with stunting and lowered immunity. Sorghum samples were the most contaminated and millet the least contaminated. Aflatoxin contamination was highest in southern Malawi and least in northern Malawi. Observed results indicate that this population is at risk of poor health due to lack of knowledge and aflatoxin exposure. Strategies to address contamination should therefore include a comprehensive education campaign to increase knowledge and promote accessible strategies.

Efficacy of sodium metabisulphite for control of Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 contamination in vitro and in chilli powder and whole red chillies

Chillies are an important spice in many regions of the world. During the production and processing phases, they are prone to infection by mycotoxigenic fungi, especially Aspergillus Section Flavi species and contamination with aflatoxins. There is significant interest in controlling aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination in such spices to ensure they remain below the legislative limits for human consumption. This study initially examined the potential efficacy of sodium metabisulphite (NaMBS, up to 5000 mg/L) for the control of growth and AFB1 production by Aspergillus flavus strains in vitro on a chilli-based medium modified to 0.93–0.995 water activity, aw). Subsequent studies examined efficacy of NaMBS in stored naturally contaminated chilli powder and whole red chillies, or when inoculated with A. flavus at 0.70, 0.80, 0.90, 0.95 aw and 30 °C for 20 days. NaMBS was effective in vitro in controlling growth of the three strains of A. flavus at the different aw levels examined. No growth occurred with >500–1250 NaMBS mg/L. AFB1 was only produced at 0.98 aw with complete inhibition at ≥1250 mg/L of the preservative at 30 °C. The in vitro ED50, ED90 for NaMBS varied with aw conditions. In situ studies with chilli powder and whole red dry chillies (naturally contaminated or + conidial inoculum of A. flavus) showed that at 0.70 and 0.80 aw, NaMBS treatments of 1000 and 2000 mg/L resulted in AFB1 contamination levels below the legislative limits for spices. However, under wetter conditions at 0.90 and 0.95 aw, AFB1 contamination of stored chilli powder, −/+ A. flavus inoculum, were above the legislative limits, even with 2000 mg/L NaMBS and 20 days storage at 30 °C. Stored whole chillies inoculated with A. flavus resulted in a reduction of populations, especially at 2000 mg/L NaMBS. Control of AFB1 was achieved only with 2000 mg/L NaMBS treatment after 10 and 20 days storage. Studies with commercial laminated sheets containing immobilised NaMBS with slow release of SO2 properties significantly reduced fungal populations and effectively controlled AFB1 contamination of the stored and packaged whole red chillies.

Aflatoxin contamination in dairy feed during wet and dry seasons in selected rural areas of Sidama zone in Southern Ethiopia

This study was conducted in the southern region of Ethiopia. The objectives were to assess the occurrence and level of aflatoxin B1 contamination in dairy cow feeds. The analytical technique used was Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA). Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze +the season and location interaction effect. Laboratory analysis showed that 81.2% of the feed samples had a detectable level of AFB1 within the range of 0.067-29.69 µg/kg and with an average of 7.91±5.83 µg/kg. From the positive samples, 52.5 and 4.58% of the feed sample were above EU (5 µg/kg) and USA (20 µg/kg) limits for dairy cattle feed respectively. Average AFB1 concentration during the dry season (8.74± 5.6 µg/kg) is significantly higher (P<0.05) than wet season (7.02± 5.86 µg/kg). This result implies that sustainable good practices should be maintained for all feed harvesting, storage, and feeding practices by feed producers and dairy farmers regarding aflatoxin contamination.

Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxin B1 in Iranian breads and wheat-based products considering effects of traditional processing

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin made by various fungal strains, which could be contaminated cereal-based products, such as bread and sweets widely consumed worldwide. The objective of this research was to survey the fate of AFB1 from wheat flour samples to various kinds of Iranian traditional breads and bakery products. The study evaluates the contamination levels of AFB1 during the bread-making process by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD); in addition, calculation of exposure assessment of AFB1 through the consumption of these products. All flour samples were contaminated with AFB1 in the range of 0.47–3.38 ng/g, which the lowest and highest contamination was regarding null flour and dark flour used in the preparation of cake and Sangak bread (a sourdough type of bread that is made from wholemeal flour). AFB1 levels in the mixed dough were the same and insignificantly lower than initial flour samples (P > 0.05), and were significantly decreased in the fermented dough and baked samples compared to the initial flour (P < 0.05). During the fermentation process, the lowest AFB1 reduction was observed, in cake and biscuit samples (8.5% and 6.5%), and the highest reduction percentage of AFB1 was attributed to Sangak dough (24.2%). The highest and lowest AFB1 levels of the various traditional baked products were observed in biscuits (1.15 ± 0.04 μg/kg), and cake (0.21 ± 0.01 μg/kg). Overall, These results highlight that although the mean levels of AFB1 in Iranian traditional bread and bakery products are not worried with regard to the current EU legislation and the national Iran standards, however, due to the high consumption amount of bread in Iran (286 g/day), the estimated average exposure of AFB1 in adults and children through different Iranian bread types was higher than the guidance value. Therefore it is recommended that regular monitoring be done to assess the rates of these toxins in cereals and the related product to the confidence that human exposure levels be held as low as possible.

Aflatoxin B1 contamination of wheat flour, coffee, and pistachios consumed in Northern Palestine

The objective of the present work was to investigate the levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in some commonly consumed food items (wheat flour, roasted coffee beans, and pistachios) at the markets of Palestine. The samples were collected from the cities in the Northern West Bank (Nablus, Tulkarm, and Jenin). The pistachio and coffee samples were collected from the main toasters in these cities, while the flour samples were collected from the major bakeries in these cities. A total of 90 samples were collected, 30 from each city. The samples were analysed by a direct quantitative competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to determine the amounts of AFB1. AFB1 contamination was detected in all of the collected samples. The percentage of samples exceeding the permissible limit prescribed by the European Commission (EC) Regulation of Maximum Residual Levels (MRL) was 33.3%. AFB1 contamination levels in the flour samples ranged between 0.4 - 2 µg/kg, with a mean of 0.75 µg/kg. All of the tested samples were below the EC-MRL level of 12 µg/kg. The amount of AFB1 in the roasted coffee beans ranged between 12 - 49 µg/kg, with a mean of 25.03 µg/kg. All of the tested samples exceeded the EC-MRL level of 5 µg/kg. The pistachios had a contamination level between 0.7- 2.20 µg/kg, with a mean of 1.28 µg/kg, and none exceeded the EC-MRL level of 8 µg/kg for direct human consumption. No differences were observed between the targeted areas (p &gt; 0.05). The results obtained on the contamination levels of AFB1 indicated a serious public health issues. Further improvement of food handling and storage conditions must be exercised.

Laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy for detection of Aflatoxin B1 contamination in peanut oil

The Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination in peanut oil is harmful and widespread. In this study, a laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy (LIF) system was developed for rapid and non-invasive screening of four varieties of peanut oils contaminated with different levels of AFB1. Discriminant analysis was conducted to classify the four varieties of peanut oils into acceptable (AFB1 < 20 μg kg−1) and contaminated (AFB1 ≥ 20 μg kg−1) levels. The results of single-step modelling, which directly classify the whole 540 peanut oils into acceptable and contaminated levels, could achieve an accuracy of 95% and 93% for calibration and validation sets respectively. Considering the fluorescence spectra could easily be influenced by the difference of physicochemical properties of different varieties of peanut oils, two-steps modelling method was conducted. In the first step, the total 540 peanut oils were classified into four varieties with all accuracy of 100% based on 600–800 nm, by using LDA algorithm. In the second step, the AFB1 contamination levels of each variety were discriminated. The classification accuracy was increased by at least 5% by conducting two-steps modelling. The results of quantitative analysis showed that for single variety, PLSR based on 400–600 nm could achieve accurate quantitative prediction. The feasibility of LIF technique for the rapid and nondestructive detection of AFB1 contamination in different varieties of edible oils was proved in this study. Further research will focus on the detection of naturally infected oils.

Determination of aflatoxin B1 concentration in poultry feed in the poultry farms of Sanandaj using ELISA method

Background and Aim: Aflatoxin B1 is a common contaminant of poultry feed and has the highest rate of acute and chronic toxicity among all mycotoxins. Over the past decade, studies have well established the negative effects of aflatoxin B1 on the health of poultry. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the maximum concentration of aflatoxin B1 in poultry feed. Materials and Methods: In this study, in order to determine the aflatoxin B1 concentration in poultry feed, 45 samples were collected via a simple random method during autumn 2018 and winter 2019, and then the concentration of this contaminant was measured by the ELISA method. Results: The experimental results showed that the contamination range in the positive samples was between 6.44 and 34.18 µg/Kg. Moreover, the mean concentration of aflatoxin in contaminated samples was 5.10 µg/Kg. The concentration of contaminant in 46.66% of the samples exceeded the standard limit. Due to higher temperatures and suitable environmental conditions for the growth of fungi, the samples prepared in autumn were more contaminated than those prepared in winter. Conclusion: The level of aflatoxin B1 contamination in poultry feed in Sanandaj is high. In order to prevent the entry of this toxin into the human food cycle regular survey and monitoring of poultry feed by health institutions are necessary

English

The kernel of groundnut and groundnut-based products are easily contaminated by aflatoxin: a mycotoxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. A total of 526 samples of groundnut and groundnut-based products were collected from six states in Nigeria namely Kano, Jigawa, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto and Benue States and analyzed for Aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) contamination using the Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique. Results of the analysis revealed that both groundnut kernel and processed products had varying levels of AfB1 contamination. While AfB1 contamination levels varied between 7.82 and 12.33 µg/kg in kernels of local groundnut varieties, they ranged between 3.79 and 6.79 µg/kg in those of improved groundnut varieties. Mean AfB1 levels in groundnut-based products ranged from 12.30 to 99.37 µg/kg, with the highest recorded in kuli-kuli - a by-product of groundnut oil processing. Variability between mean AfB1 contamination levels in groundnut kernels of improved and local varieties were significant while no statistical difference was found between mean AfB1 contamination levels in groundnut kernels between/amongst the states. Outcomes of the study suggest that an integrated approach including the use of improved groundnut varieties, appropriate crop management practices and awareness creation on food safety, and notably on aflatoxin, could mitigate contamination in the groundnut value chain. Key words: Aflatoxin B1, prevalence, groundnut, distribution, Nigeria.

Effect of Moisture Content on Aflatoxin B1 production in Wheat Flour Samples Collected from Lahore, Pakistan

The present research was conducted to study the effects of moisture contents on the level of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in wheat flour samples collected from different areas of Lahore. Total 30 samples were collected from different locations and shops in Lahore- Pakistan, making sure that they have different levels of moisture contents. Thin layer chromatography technique was (TLC) selected to check the AFB1 contamination levels in wheat flour samples. The AFB1 was detected in 10 samples (33.33%), out of which 7 samples (23.33%) had AFB1 levels within permissible range, i.e. 2 μg/kg, while 3 samples (10%) contained AFB1 levels i.e. 2.67 μg/kg, 2.93 μg/kg, 3.01 μg/kg above permissible range. From the study it was concluded that the contaminated samples had greater moisture contents than that of non contaminated samples. Sample with 35% moisture content has 3.01 μg/kg AFB1 levels. The food stuff can be protected from AFB1 production by minimizing the moisture contents, the lesser the moisture content, the lesser will be the aflatoxin levels in food samples.

Risk assessment of aflatoxin B1in ‘egusi’ melon seeds (Citrullus colocynthis)

‘Egusi’ (Citrullus colocynthis L.) is widely cultivated in Nigeria for its nutritious seeds, which is prone to deterioration in storage due to fungal infection hence, mycotoxin, especially aflatoxin B(1) contamination. Aflatoxin B(1) is the most potent natural carcinogen known and usually the major aflatoxin produced by toxigenic strains. This review aims to assess dietary exposure to aflatoxin B(1); estimate population risk for aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and annual HCC burden for Nigeria due to consumption of contaminated melon seeds; with a view to recommending possible approaches to improve ‘egusi’ melon seeds safety. Secondary data obtained from literature on levels of aflatoxin B1 contamination in ‘egusi’ melon seeds from farmers’ stores were used to determine dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 due to consumption of contaminated melon seeds. Population risk for aflatoxin-induced HCC and annual HCC burden were estimated based on the cancer potency of aflatoxin B1 for hepatitis B virus (HBV) positive and negative individuals; and prevalence of HBV in Nigeria. Average aflatoxin B(1) dietary exposure values for adult and children sub-populations were 0.007 and 0.014 µg kg(-1), respectively. A total of 0.0006 or 0.0001% children and 0.0003 or 0.00006% adults in Nigeria have the potential of developing HCC, if they are hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positive or negative, respectively, due to the consumption of ‘egusi’ melon seeds contaminated with aflatoxin B1. Determination of mycotoxin contamination along ‘egusi’ melon seed production chain (farm-to-table) and relationship between mould growth and mycotoxin production as a function of selected intrinsic and extrinsic factors are recommended in order to eliminate or reduce mycotoxin contamination, thereby mitigating associated risks.

Aflatoxin M1 in fresh dairy milk from small individual farms in Indonesia

&lt;p&gt;This present study was aimed to investigate the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) residue in fresh dairy milk collected from small dairyl farms. A total of 104 samples of fresh cow's milk were collected in Pengalengan-Bandung and Sukabumi (West Java province), and Tanggamus (Lampung province) in April and September 2012. All samples were analyzed by a high performance liquid chromatography and detected with fluorescence detector after extraction with organic solvents. Contamination of AFM1 was found on 1.96% (1/51) from the samples collected in April 2012 at concentration of 1.20 ng/L and 39.63% (21/53) from the samples collected in September 2012 at concentration of 1.20 ng/L 1.0 – 34.1 ng/L. Those positive samples were obtained from Pangalengan and Sukabumi, but none for those samples collected from Tanggamus both on collection time April nor September 2012. In those positive samples for AFM1, there is no sample contained AFM1 above the maximum level (ML) regulated in Indonesia (500 ng/L or 0.5 µg/L). Low contamination levels of AFB1 in the range of 0.38 to 6.64 µg/kg found in supplemental feed samples from the same sampling time and locations. The findings of AFM1 contamination in raw fresh milk from this study caused no harm to the consumers. However, regular monitoring on the presence of AFM1 in dairy milk and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in dairy cattle feed is necessary to ensure the protection of human health.&lt;/p&gt;

Aflatoxin M1 contamination of raw cow's milk in five regions of Kosovo during 2016.

During February and August 2016 (winter and summer season), 192 samples of raw bulk tank milk have been collected from small dairy farms in five different regions of Kosova (Prishtina, Prizren, Peja, Mitrovica, and Gjilan). These samples were analyzed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination level by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The limit of quantification for AFM1 was 0.02μg/L and recovery at 0.1-0.5μg/L was 90-95% (coefficient of variation 15-25%). A total of 74 milk samples (38%) were found to be contaminated with AFM1 and 11 samples (5.7%) slightly exceeded the European Union maximum level of 0.05μg/L. The maximum AFM1 level was at 0.082μg/L. There was no relevant difference between summer and winter with regard to AFM1 frequency and levels. Although the frequency of AFM1-positive samples varied between regions, from 7% (Prishtina) to 53% (Prizren), only minor regional differences were observed with regard to average and maximum toxin levels. The high percentage of milk samples which were non-compliant with AFM1 maximum levels indicates that efforts to reduce the contamination levels of aflatoxin B1 in cows feed in Kosovo are necessary.

Comparison of dry matter losses and aflatoxin B1 contamination of paddy and brown rice stored naturally or after inoculation with Aspergillus flavus at different environmental conditions

The objective of this study was to compare the effect of different storage moisture conditions (0.70, 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 water activity, aw) and temperatures (20, 25, 30 °C) on (a) respiration rates (R) and dry matter loss (DML) of paddy and brown rice and (b) quantify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production by isolates of Aspergillus flavus from the rice samples and (c) inoculation of both rice types with A. flavus under these storage conditions on R, DML and AFB1 contamination. There was an increase in temporal CO2 production with wetter and warmer conditions in naturally contaminated rice. Higher R and consequently, % DML, were generally found in the brown rice (21%) while in paddy rice this was only up to 3.5% DML. From both rice types, 15 (83.3%) of 18 A. flavus isolates produced detectable levels of AFB1 in a range 2.5–1979.6 μg/kg. There was an increase in DML in both rice types inoculated with A. flavus as temperature and aw were increased. Interestingly very little AFB1 was detected in paddy rice, but significant contamination occurred in the brown rice. The %DML in the control and A. flavus inoculated rice increased with temperature and aw at both 25 and 30 °C from 1-2% to 15–20% DML at 30 °C and 0.95 aw. All the inoculated rice samples had AFB1 levels above the EU legislative limits for contamination in other temperate cereals and products derived from cereals (=2 μg/kg). Even samples with % DML as low as 0.2% had AFB1 contamination levels twice the limits for other cereals. These results suggest that the mycotoxin contamination risk in staple commodities like rice, is influenced by whether the rice is processed or not, and that measurement of R rates can be used to predict the relative risk of AFB1 contamination in such staple commodities.

Detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in individual maize kernels using short wave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging

Short wave infrared hyperspectral imaging (SWIR) (1000–2500 nm) was used to detect aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in single maize kernels. One hundred and twenty kernels of four varieties artificially inoculated with a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus in the field were examined. Normalisation and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied on average spectra of each kernel to reduce dimensionality and noise. Combining with support vector machine (SVM) classification methods, the first five principal components (PCs) were used to qualitatively classify the AFB1 contamination levels (