Contaminants In Mussels Research Articles

Microplastic contamination in marine mussels from the Atlantic coast of North Portugal and human risk of microplastic intake through mussel consumption

Microplastic (MP) pollution has become a global concern due to its potential impacts on the environment, ecosystem services and human health. The goals of the present study were to document the MP contamination in wild specimens of Mytilus galloprovincialis sampled along the Atlantic coast of the North region of Portugal continental (NW Portuguese coast), and to estimate the human risk of MP intake (HRI) through the consumption of local mussels as seafood. Mussels were collected at four sampling sites along the NW Portuguese coast (40 mussels per site), and the whole soft body of each mussel was analysed for MP content. HRI estimates were based on the mean of MP items per wet weight of mussel analysed tissue (MP/g) and consumption habits. A total of 132 MP items were recovered from mussels. MP had diverse sizes (98–2690 μm) and colours. The most common shapes were fibres (39%) and pellets (36%). Five polymers were identified in the MP: polyethylene (50%), polystyrene (15%), poly(ethylene vinyl acetate) (14%), polyamide (12%) and polypropylene (9%). From the 160 analysed mussels, 55% had MP. The mean and standard error of the mean of mussel contamination ranged from 0.206 ± 0.067 and 0.709 ± 0.095 MP/g. Compared to estimates based on MP contamination in mussels from other areas and varied consumption habits, the HRI through the consumption of mussels from the NW Portuguese coast is relatively low.

Microplastics in marine mussels, biological effects and human risk of intake: A case study in a multi-stressor environment

This study documented seasonal levels of microplastics (MPs) and biomarkers (condition index, neurotoxicity, energy, oxidative stress) in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and water physico-chemical parameters in the Douro estuary (NE Atlantic coast), and estimated the human risk of MP intake (HRI) through mussels. Mussel stress was determined through the Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR). HRI was estimated from mussel MP concentrations and consumer habits. MPs were mainly micro-fibres (72 %) with varied chemical composition. Seasonal MP means (±SEM) in mussels ranged from 0.111 ± 0.044 (spring) to 0.312 ± 0.092 MPs/g (summer). Seasonal variations of mussel stress (IBR: 1.4 spring to 9.7 summer) and MP concentrations were not related. MeO-BDEs, PBDEs, temperature, salinity and other factors likely contributed to mussel stress variation. HRI ranged from 2438 to 2650 MPs/year. Compared to the literature, MP contamination in mussels is low, as well as the human risk of MP intake through their consumption.

Microplastic contamination in raw mussels collected in Istanbul

Plastic materials have become a part of nearly every aspect of our everyday life. In this study, microplastic contamination in mussel samples collected from Istanbul shores was analyzed. 10% KOH protocol was used for sample digestion and density separation was applied using NaI solution. After microscopic visual inspection, polymer type was confirmed using ATR FTIR method. Out of the 30 samples analyzed, 22 samples (73.33%) contained microplastics. In the 30 samples analyzed, a total of 60 microplastics were detected. Microplastic pollution levels were calculated as 0.13 particles/gram of mussel tissue and 0.5 particles/individual. The most detected polymer type was polyamide (PA) 38%. Films (43.33%) were the most common shape of microplastic, with 200–1000 µm being the most common size range. The results of this study confirm that microplastic contamination is common in the Bosphorus in Istanbul. Considering the continuously increasing plastic production and contamination levels worldwide, it is believed that the situation can become worse in the upcoming future.

Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and toxic metals in blue mussels and oysters for human consumption from Danish waters (2005–2019)

Bivalve molluscs have for many years been used as indicator organisms for environmental pollution with various chemical substances. However, limited information is available on the levels of chemical contaminants in mussels and oysters intended for human consumption. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and toxic metals, such as cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) have been analysed in edible bivalve samples and the present study provides the results from samples collected in Danish waters from 2005 to 2019. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Pattern Recognition Neural Network (PRNN) analysis were applied to data to identify any differences according to organism, locality, and contaminant levels. Differences were confirmed for Pb concentrations being generally higher in mussels than oysters. Based on toxic metals results, the PCA and PRNN analyses made it possible to categorise samples as a mussel or an oyster, as well as make decisions on the origin of a specific sample. All concentrations in mussels and oysters were below the current European Union maximum levels for the contaminants.

Modelling spatiotemporal distributions of Vulcanodinium rugosum and pinnatoxin G in French Mediterranean lagoons: Application to human health risk characterisation

Consumption of seafood contaminated by phycotoxins produced by harmful algae is a major issue in human public health. Harmful algal blooms are driven by a multitude of environmental variables; therefore predicting human dietary exposure to phycotoxins based on these variables is a promising approach in health risk management. In this study, we attempted to predict the human health risks associated with Vulcanodinium rugosum and its neurotoxins, pinnatoxins (PnTXs), which have been regularly found in Mediterranean lagoons since their identification in 2011. Based on environmental variables collected over 1 year in four Mediterranean lagoons, we developed linear mixed models to predict the presence of V. rugosum and PnTX G contamination of mussels. We found that the occurrence of V. rugosum was significantly associated with seawater temperature. PnTX G contamination of mussels was highest in summer but persisted throughout the year. This contamination was significantly associated with seawater temperature and the presence of V. rugosum with a time lag, but not with dissolved PnTX G in seawater. By using the contamination model predictions and their potential variability/uncertainty, we calculated the human acute dietary exposures throughout the year and predicted that 25% of people who consume mussels could exceed the provisional acute benchmark value during the warmest periods. We suggest specific recommendations to monitor V. rugosum and PnTX G.

Abnormality of mussel in the early developmental stages induced by graphene and triphenyl phosphate: In silico toxicogenomic data-mining, in vivo, and toxicity pathway-oriented approach

Increasing number of complex mixtures of organic pollutants in coastal area (especially for nanomaterials and micro/nanoplastics associated chemicals) threaten aquatic ecosystems and their joint hazards are complex and demanding tasks. Mussels are the most sensitive marine faunal groups in the world, and their early developmental stages (embryo and larvae) are particularly susceptible to environmental contaminants, which can distinguish the probable mechanisms of mixture-induced growth toxicity. In this study, the potential critical target and biological processes affected by graphene and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) were developed by mining public toxicogenomic data. And their combined toxic effects were verified by toxicological assay at early developmental stages in filter-feeding mussels (embryo and larvae). It showed that interactions among graphene/TPP with 111 genes (ABCB1, TP53, SOD, CAT, HSP, etc.) affected phenotypes along conceptual framework linking these chemicals to developmental abnormality endpoints. The PPAR signaling pathway, monocarboxylic acid metabolic process, regulation of lipid metabolic process, response to oxidative stress, and gonad development were noted as the key molecular pathways that contributed to the developmental abnormality. Enriched phenotype analysis revealed biological processes (cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, inflammatory response, response to oxidative stress, and lipid metabolism) affected by the investigated mixture. Combined, our results supported that adverse effects induced by contaminants/ mixture could not only be mediated by single receptor signaling or be predicted by the simple additive effect of contaminants. The results offer a framework for better comprehending the developmental toxicity of environmental contaminants in mussels and other invertebrate species, which have considerable potential for hazard assessment of coastal mixture.

Spatial-temporal assessment of Norovirus contamination in mussels from Cherrat estuary, Morocco, by real-time Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction

Mussels filter large amounts of water to extract nutrients; therefore, they can concentrate and accumulate in their tissues infectious agents, and vectors of enteric diseases. The aim of this study was to assess mussel contamination by Norovirus genogroups I and II in the Cherrat estuary to determine the public health risk linked to their consumption. Mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were collected (n=52 samples; 12 mussels/sample) at four sites (S1 and S2 located on the right rocky bank / S3 and S4, located on the rocky left bank) in the Cherrat estuary (Casa-Settat region), Morocco, during 13 months, from March 2019 to March 2020. Norovirus was detected and quantified by real-time Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). Norovirus genogroups I and II were detected in 17.30% and 94.23% of mussel samples, respectively. Contamination by Norovirus (genogroups I and II) was not correlated with seasonal factors (month and rainfall), and Norovirus prevalence was comparable among the four sampling sites. Consumption of raw or undercooked mussels contaminated with Norovirus can cause gastroenteritis, which represents a potential risk to human health. The present study would be helpful to control and manage the potential risk to the public health of the Moroccan population due to the degradation of water quality continuously impacted by runoff, the urban wastewater treatment system malfunctions, and overflows from nearby sewage systems.

Binational survey using Mytilus galloprovincialis as a bioindicator of microplastic pollution: Insights into chemical analysis and potential risk on humans

Microplastic (MP) contamination in edible mussels has raised concerns due to their potential risk to human health. Aiming to provide valuable insights regarding the occurrence, physicochemical characteristics, and human health implications of MP contamination, in the present study, two nationwide surveys of MP contamination in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were conducted in Morocco and Tunisia. The results indicated that MP frequency ranged from 79 % to 100 % in all the analyzed samples. The highest MP density was detected in mussels from Morocco (gills “GI”: 1.88 MPs/g ww−1; digestive glands “DG”: 0.92 MPs/g ww−1) compared to mussels of Tunisia (GI: 1.47 MPs g− 1; DG: 0.79 MPs g− 1). No significant differences in MP density were found between the two organs (GI and DG) for both countries. MPs were predominantly blue and black fibers, and smaller than 1000 μm. Seven polymeric types were identified, of which PET, PP, and PE were the most abundant, accounting for >87 % of all samples. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) showed that most MPs have noticeable signs of weathering and inorganic components on their surface. The highest MP daily intake was found in children, while the lowest was estimated in women and men. Moreover, the annual dietary exposure of MPs through mussel consumption was estimated to be 1262.17 MPs/year in Morocco and 78.18 MPs/year in Tunisia. The potential risk assessment of MPs in mussels based on the polymer hazard index (PHI) was estimated in the high-risk levels, implying that MPs may pose health risks to humans. Overall, this research suggests that the consumption of mussels represents a considerable MP exposure route for the Moroccan and Tunisian populations.

A Hotspot of TTX Contamination in the Adriatic Sea: Study on the Origin and Causative Factors.

Tetrodotoxins (TTXs), the pufferfish venom traditionally associated with Indo-Pacific area, has been reported during last decades in ever wider range of marine organisms and ever more geographical areas, including shellfish in Europe. Wild mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) grown in the Marche Region (N Adriatic Sea, Italy) were shown to be prone to TTX contamination during the warm season, with a suspected role of Vibrio alginolyticus characterized by non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) and polyketide synthase (PKS)-encoding genes. This work aimed to deepen the knowledge about the toxin's origin and the way through which it accumulates in mussels. A two-year study (spring-summer 2020-2021) confirmed the recurrent presence of TTX (11-68 µg kg-1) in the official monitored natural mussel beds of the Conero Riviera. During 2021, a supplementary nonroutine monitoring of a natural mussel bed in the same area was carried out weekly from June until August for TTXs and/or the presence of V. alginolyticus. Biotic (mussels, mesozooplankton, worms and phytoplankton); abiotic (water and sediment) matrices and phytoplankton assemblage characterizations were studied. Mussels showed relevant TTX contamination levels (9-296 µg kg-1) with extremely rapid TTX accumulation/depletion rates. The toxin presence in phytoplankton and its distribution in the different mussel tissues supports its possible exogenous origin. The V. alginolyticus count trend overlaps that of TTX contamination in mussels, and similar trends were reported also for some phytoplankton species. The role of V. alginolyticus carrying NRPS or PKS genes as a possible TTX source and of phytoplankton as a "potential vector" should therefore be further investigated.

Hepatitis A and E Viruses in Mussels from Cherrat Estuary in Morocco: Detection by Real-Time Reverse Transcription PCR Analysis.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) contamination in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from Cherrat estuary (Moroccan Atlantic Coast), Morocco. In total, 52 samples (n = 12 mussels/each) were collected at four sites in the estuary, monthly, between March 2019 and March 2020. HAV and HEV were detected by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) according to the ISO/TS 15216 method. HAV was detected in 46.15% of analyzed samples. Conversely, HEV was not detected in any sample. Moreover, the HAV detection rate was significantly associated with seasonal rainfall variations. This qualitative study on HAV and HEV contamination highlights the interest of studying mussel samples from wild areas. As HAV presence in mussels represents a potential health risk, viral contamination surveillance of mussels is necessary to protect consumers. HAV shellfish contamination must be monitored at Cherrat estuary because of the role played by shellfish as HAV reservoirs and/or vehicles in fecal-oral HAV transmission.

1H NMR-based metabolomics investigation on the biological effects of paralytic shellfish toxin in mussel Mytilus trossulus

Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a global issue that would benefit from additional screening methods and rapid testing capacities. In this study, we applied 1H NMR spectroscopy-based metabolomics to identify biomarkers of Paralytic Shellfish Toxin (PST) exposure. We characterized the metabolic phenotypes of field-collected Alaskan mussels Mytilus trossulus across a wide range of bioaccumulated PST levels, from 0 to 1590 μg/100 g. A between-level grouping emerged for high (740–1590 μg/100 g) compared to low/non-detect (0–3.91 μg/100 g) PST levels. High levels of PST contamination in mussels were consistent with alterations to energy and amino acid metabolism, and disturbances in osmoregulation. This research demonstrates the effectiveness of 1H NMR-based metabolomics in elucidating the biological effects of paralytic shellfish toxin on the health of wild mussel populations, spatial variation, and identifies a metabolic signature indicative of PST contamination in Mytilus trossulus for potential use in a PSP biomarker panel.

Palytoxin-Analogues Accumulation in Natural Mussel Banks during an Ostreopsis cf. ovata Bloom

Intense blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Ostreopsis producing palytoxin (PlTX) analogs, mainly ovatoxins (OVTXs), have been a recurrent phenomenon along several Mediterranean coasts. Although there is evidence of seafood contamination by these toxins, the dynamics of their bioaccumulation during Ostreopsis blooms is not yet clear. Toxin concentrations in wild mussels at two sites in the Conero Riviera, along the northern Adriatic Sea (Portonovo and Passetto), were analyzed from August to October 2021, throughout an Ostreopsis cf. ovata bloom, to investigate their relationships with the bloom pattern and abundances. Contaminated mussels showed the typical toxin profile dominated by OVTX-a and -b, with levels lower than the threshold considered unsafe for human consumption (30 µg PlTX-equivalent kg−1 soft tissue). The toxin content reached 36.4 µg PlTX kg−1 soft tissue only in a single sampling date. A clear correlation between the bioaccumulation of OVTXs in mussels and the abundance of Ostreopsis was observed. Our results highlighted, however, that bioaccumulation in the mussels is not affected merely by the abundance of toxic microalgae, since higher toxin levels were recorded at Portonovo, where the cell abundances were lower than at Passetto. The results from this study indicate that the Italian guidelines for the management of Ostreopsis blooms in bathing waters are also useful in managing the risks of human intoxication through ingestion, as mussel contamination was detected only during the alert phase (10,000–30,000 cells L−1).

Forecasting biotoxin contamination in mussels across production areas of the Portuguese coast with Artificial Neural Networks

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and the consequent contamination of shellfish are complex processes depending on several biotic and abiotic variables, turning prediction of shellfish contamination into a challenging task. Not only the information of interest is dispersed among multiple sources, but also the complex temporal relationships between the time-series variables require advanced machine methods to model such relationships. In this study, multiple time-series variables measured in Portuguese shellfish production areas were used to forecast shellfish contamination by diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins one to four weeks in advance. These time series included DSP concentration in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis), toxic phytoplankton cell counts, meteorological, and remotely sensed oceanographic variables. Several data pre-processing and feature engineering methods were tested, as well as multiple autoregressive and artificial neural network (ANN) models. The best results regarding the mean absolute error of prediction were obtained for a bivariate long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network based on biotoxin and toxic phytoplankton measurements, with higher accuracy for short-term forecasting horizons. When evaluating all ANNs model ability to predict the contamination state (below or above the regulatory limit for contamination) and changes to this state, multilayer perceptrons (MLP) and convolutional neural networks (CNN) yielded improved predictive performance on a case-by-case basis. These results show the possibility of extracting relevant information from time-series data from multiple sources which are predictive of DSP contamination in mussels, therefore placing ANNs as good candidate models to assist the production sector in anticipating harvesting interdictions and mitigating economic losses.

Spatio-temporal contamination of microplastics in shellfish farming regions: A case study

The seasonal pattern of microplastics (MPs) contamination of the French littoral area of the Pertuis Charentais, one of the main French shellfish production regions, was assessed for the first time, between May 2019 and May 2020 at four different sites. The reference site was located at “Ile de Ré” and the other sites were located in the estuaries of the Sèvre Niortaise, Charente and Seudre rivers. Both blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oysters (Magallana gigas), that are considered sentinel species for the quality of the marine environment were analysed, along with sediment and seawater samples. MPs were extracted from each sample, counted, measured and sorted by colour and type. Micro-Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the proportion of confirmed MPs and the polymer types. The results showed that the contamination of mussels by fibres and fragments (1.9 ± 2.1 MPs/g ww) was significantly higher than for oysters (0.4 ± 0.4 MPs/g ww). Specifically, the contamination by fibres in both species was significantly greater than the contamination by fragments. Significant variations of MPs contamination were observed across the seasons and sites in bivalves, and depended on the species and the type of MPs (fibres or fragments). Mean concentrations of MPs measured in water and sediment were 0.007 MPs/L and 210 MPs/kg dw, respectively. Finally, blue was the dominant colour for fibres (79 %) and fragments (81 %). Blue fragments were mainly made of PS (70 %) followed by PC (18 %) and PP, PA or PLA (3 %) whereas blue fibres were mainly made of PA (80 %) followed by PET (13 %) or PP (7 %). This rare environmental case study of long-term chronic exposure of farming areas to MPs provides new knowledge on in situ variations of plastic fibres and fragments contamination throughout the seasons.

Trace metal contents in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis from Atlantic coastal areas in northwestern Morocco: Levels of contamination and assessment of potential risks to human health

The bioaccumulation of trace metals Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn in soft tissues of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis was studied seasonally along the Atlantic coast of northwestern Morocco. Average concentrations (μg g−1 dry weight) decreased in the following order: Zn (141.61 ± 78.06) > Cr (22.57 ± 15.47) > Cu (18.95 ± 20.01) > Cd (16.33 ± 19.01), with higher amounts during wet seasons. The “Metal Pollution Index” and “Individual Multimetal Bioaccumulation Index” suggested a higher mussel contamination in industrialized areas. Moreover, Cd and Cr concentrations were above the permissible guidelines' limits. The related risks to human health associated with mussel consumption were also assessed. The “Target Hazard Quotient” for Cd and Cr revealed a threat to children when mussels originated from polluted stations, while the “Hazard Index” indicated a hazard to them in all stations. Regarding the “Maximum Safe Consumption”, children should not consume mussels, even in low quantities. This study represents the first datum in Morocco to assess such a risk to human health.

A Longitudinal Study of Bacteriophages as Indicators of Norovirus Contamination of Mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Their Overlying Waters

Sewage pollution leads to the contamination of bivalve shellfish by pathogenic microorganisms. Bacterial indicators support the management of risks associated with the consumption of shellfish; however, they often fail to indicate adequately the potential hazard to human health posed by certain human enteric viruses. Bacteriophages have been proposed as alternative indicators that may more effectively predict the presence of enteric viral pathogens. This study explored the relationships between bacterial indicators (Escherichia coli (E. coli), faecal coliforms (FC) and intestinal enterococci (IE)), phages (somatic (SOMPH), F-specific RNA (F + PH) and human-specific Bacteroides GB-124 phages (GB124PH)) and Norovirus (NoV) (GI/GII) in mussels (Mytilus edulis) and their overlying waters. The bioaccumulation of these indicators and Norovirus in shellfish matrices (e.g., flesh, digestive gland) was investigated bimonthly over a 12-month period in an English estuary. The findings revealed a marked seasonality in the distribution of all organisms, with the highest levels occurring during the autumn/winter months. The levels of all phages in shellfish and their overlying waters correlated better with the levels of Norovirus than with those of bacterial indicators. Somatic coliphages were the indicator that exhibited the strongest correlations with NoV (rho = 0.929). This study suggests that relatively low-cost culture-based phage enumeration appears to offer a more accurate indication of the likely presence of Norovirus in mussels than traditional bacterial indicators.

Occurrence of potential plastic microfibers in mussels and anchovies sold for human consumption: Preliminary results.

There is a global concern over the impact of microplastics on marine species and trophic webs. Microfibers commonly represent the greater portion of microplastics in the aquatic environment, but little is known about fiber uptake and accumulation by marine biota. The aim of the study was to investigate the potential plastic microfiber contamination in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) from the Tyrrhenian Sea sold for human consumption. Anthropogenic debris was extracted from the digestive tracts of fish and the whole shellfish using a 10% KOH solution and quantified under a light microscope. The preliminary results showed the occurrence of potential plastic and natural microfibers in 73% of the samples. On average mussels contained 1.33 microfibers/g w.w. and 7.66 items/individual, while anchovies contained 9.06 microfibers/individual. Considering that mussels are consumed as a whole, and small pelagic fish, as anchovy, may be eaten without removing the gastrointestinal tract, microfiber contamination may lead to human exposure. More research is required to adequately assess the risk that microplastics, including microfibers, may pose for food safety and human health.

Microplastics in Invasive Freshwater Mussels (Dreissena sp.): Spatiotemporal Variation and Occurrence With Chemical Contaminants

Invasive zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena spp.) in the Great Lakes of North America are biomonitors for chemical contaminants, but are also exposed to microplastics (<5 mm). Little research has examined in situ microplastic ingestion by dreissenid mussels, or the relationship between microplastics and chemical contaminants. We measured microplastics and chemical contaminants in mussel tissue from Milwaukee Harbor (Lake Michigan, United States) harvested from reference locations and sites influenced by wastewater effluent and urban river discharge. Mussels were deployed in cages in the summer of 2018, retrieved after 30 and 60 days, sorted by size class, and analyzed for microplastics and body burdens of three classes of contaminants: alkylphenols, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and petroleum biomarkers. Microplastics in mussels were higher in the largest mussels at the wastewater-adjacent site after 30 days deployment. However, there was no distinction among sites for microplastics in smaller mussels, and no differences among sites after 60 days of deployment. Microplastics and chemical contaminants in mussels were not correlated. Microplastics have a diversity of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which influence their ingestion, retention, and egestion by mussels, and which vary relative to chemicals. While dreissenid mussels may not serve as plastic pollution biomonitors like they can for chemical contaminants, microplastics in dreissenid mussels are widespread, variable, and have unknown effects on physiology, mussel-mediated ecosystem processes, and lake food webs. These data will inform our understanding of the spatial distribution of microplastics in urban freshwaters, the role of dreissenid mussels in plastic budgets, and models for the fate of plastic pollution.

Study of Microplastics and Inorganic Contaminants in Mussels from the Montenegrin Coast, Adriatic Sea

Mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected at three locations in Boka Kotorska Bay, on the Montenegrin Adriatic coast, were analyzed for the first time by optical and Raman microscopy to detect microplastics (MPs) and other emerging contaminants in their soft tissues. Concentrations of six trace metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cd, and Hg) were also measured in the same samples by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Mussels from a location near the urban area of Kotor were found to exhibit the highest content of MPs and other pollutants originating from anthropogenic sources, while farmed mussels showed higher carotenoid as well as nylon content. The hypothesis of MPs acting as a possible secondary route of trace metals ingress in mussels, a thus far scarcely studied topic, was evaluated based on a comparative analysis of the obtained results. In this context, it was noticed that nylon filaments originating from mussel farming equipment might contribute to higher trace metal content. The results showed that the simultaneous analysis of different contaminants in mussels can be a significant step forward in marine environment pollution monitoring and the assessment of human health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated seafood.

A multi-platform metabolomics approach to identify possible biomarkers for human faecal contamination in Greenshell™ mussels (Perna canaliculus)

Bivalve molluscs have the potential to bioaccumulate microbial pathogens including noroviruses from aquatic environments and as such, there is a need for a rapid and cheap in-situ method for their detection. Here, we characterise the tissue-specific response of New Zealand Greenshell™ mussels (Perna canaliculus) to faecal contamination from two different sources (municipal sewage and human faeces). This is done with the view to identify potential biomarkers that could be further developed into low cost, rapid and sensitive in-situ biosensors for human faecal contamination detection of mussels in growing areas. Tissue-specific metabolic profiles from gills, haemolymph and digestive glands were analysed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). Clear differentiation of metabolic profiles was observed among treatments in each tissue type. Overall, energy pathways such as glycolysis, citrate cycle and oxidative phosphorylation were downregulated across the three mussel tissues studied following simulated contamination events. Conversely, considerable sterol upregulation in the gills was observed after exposure to contamination. Additionally, free pools of nucleotide phosphates and the antioxidant glutathione declined considerably post-exposure to contamination in gills. These results provide important insights into the tissue-specific metabolic effects of human faecal contamination in mussels. This study demonstrates the utility of metabolomics as a tool for identifying potential biomarkers in mussels.