Contaminated Aquifer Material Research Articles

Phosphate Induced Arsenic Mobilization as a Potentially Effective In-Situ Remediation Technique—Preliminary Column Tests

Arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater is commonly remediated by pump and treat. However, this technique is difficult to apply or maintain efficiently because the mobility of arsenic varies depending on the geochemical aquifer conditions. Arsenic interacting with the sediment can cause strong retardation, which is counteracted by ions competing for sedimentary sorption sites like silica, bicarbonate and phosphate. Phosphate competes most effectively with arsenic for sorption sites due to its chemical similarity. To accelerate an ongoing but ineffective pump and treat remediation, we examined the competitive effect of increasing phosphate doses on contaminated aquifer material of different depths and thus under distinct geochemical conditions. In the columns with phosphate addition, significant amounts of arsenic were released rapidly under oxic and anoxic conditions. In all tests, the grade of leaching was higher under anoxic conditions than under oxic conditions. As(III) was the dominant species, in particular during the first release peaks and the anoxic tests. Higher amounts of phosphate did not trigger the arsenic release further and led to a shift of arsenic species. We suggest that the competitive surface complexation is the major process of arsenic release especially when higher amounts of phosphate are used. Commonly arsenic release is described at iron reducing conditions. In contrast, we observed that a change in prevailing redox potential towards manganese reducing conditions in the oxic tests and iron reducing conditions in the anoxic column took place later and thus independently of arsenic release. The reduction of As(V) to As(III) under both redox conditions is presumed to be an effect of microbial detoxification. A loss of sulphate in all columns with phosphate indicates an increased microbial activity, which might play a significant role in the process of arsenic release. Preliminary tests with sediment material from a contaminated site showed that phosphate additions did not change the pH value significantly. Therefore, a release of other metals is not likely. Our results indicate that in-situ application of phosphate amendments to arsenic-contaminated sites could accelerate and enhance arsenic mobility to improve the efficiency of pump and treat remediation without negative side effects. The novelty of this approach is the use of only small amounts of phosphate in order to stimulate microbial activity in addition to surface complexation. Therefore, this method might become an innovative and cost-effective remediation for arsenic contaminated sites.

In Situ-mobilization of Arsenic in Groundwater – an Innovative Remediation Approach?

In order to evaluate an inefficient pump & treat remediation at a contaminated site in Germany, processes of arsenic release into groundwater were studied. Groundwater and aquifer material sampling indicated elevated mobility of arsenic and a differentiated spatial distribution of As(V) and As(III). An artificial increase of arsenic mobilization in addition to the ongoing pump & treat remediation was supposed to be a suitable and sustainable remediation method for the contaminated site. Typically, arsenic mobility is increased under iron-reducing conditions, yet a number of water ingredients trigger arsenic mobility, e.g phosphate. The affinity of phosphate to sorb onto mineral phases leads to a competitive surface-complexation of phosphate and arsenic. In column tests, the release of arsenic from the contaminated aquifer material was significantly enhanced by the addition of phosphate. Under oxic and anoxic redox conditions the geochemical processes led to elevated release of mobile arsenic fractions up to a total of 50–60% and almost 100% in a period of 90 days, respectively. Eventually, the amendment of phosphate is able to enhance the efficiency of a pump & treat remediation and is currently investigated on field scale on-site.

PH and redox buffering systems of landfill leachate contaminated aquifer materials

Introduction of landfill leachate into an aerobic aquifer leads to a variety of redox and pH buffering reactions between dissolved chemical species and aquifer sediments, which play profound effects on the behaviours of contaminants beneath and down gradient from the landfill. The specific objective of this study was to determine the spatial and temporal variations of pH and redox buffering capacity of aquifer sediments. Experimental results indicated that the Total pH Buffering Capacity (TpHBC) of uncontaminated aquifer material was 212.5 mmol/kg·pH–1. Fe(III) was the predominant constituent of Oxidation Capacity (OXC). TOC accounted for 98.7% of reduction capacity (RDC) in uncontaminated aquifer material. With the progressive development of the aquifer pollution, RDC was increasing while OXC was decreasing. Fe(III) oxides were reduced to Fe(II) which lead to the increase of RDC in anaerobic aquifer. Fe(II) distribution was controlled by the pH and redox environment of the subsurface.

Influence of Ferric Iron on Complete Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene (TCE) to Ethene: Fe(III) Reduction Does Not Always Inhibit Complete Dechlorination

The effects of Fe(III) reduction on TCE, cis-DCE, and VC dechlorination were studied in both contaminated aquifer material and enrichment cultures. The results from sediment batch experiments demonstrated that Fe(III) reduction did not inhibit complete dechlorination. TCE was reduced concurrently with Fe(III) in the first 40 days of the incubations. While all incubations (plus and minus Fe(III)) generated approximately the same mass of ethene within the experimental time frame, Fe(III) speciation (ferrihydrite versus Fe(III)-NTA) had an impact on daughter product distribution and dechlorination kinetics. 16S rRNA gene clone library sequencing identified Dehalococcoides and Geobacteraceae as dominant populations, which included G. lovleyi like organisms. Quantitative PCR targeting 16S rRNA genes and Reductive Dehalogenase genes (tceA, bvcA, vcrA) indicated that Dehalococcoides and Geobacteraceae were enriched concurrently in the TCE-degrading, Fe(III)-reducing sediments. Enrichment cultures demonstrated that soluble Fe(III) had a greater impact on cis-DCE and VC reduction than solid-phase Fe(III). Geobacteraceae and Dehalococcoides were also coenriched in the liquid cultures, and the Dehalococcoides abundance in the presence of Fe(III) was not significantly different from those in the cultures without Fe(III). Hydrogen reached steady-state concentrations most amenable to complete dechlorination very quickly when Fe(III) was present in the culture, suggesting that Fe(III) reduction may actually help dechlorination. This was contrasted to hydrogen levels in nitrate-amended enrichments, in which hydrogen concentration was too low for any chlororespiration.

Geochemical and microbiological processes contributing to the transformation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in contaminated aquifer material

Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) is a potential human carcinogen, and its contamination of subsurface environments is a significant threat to public health. This study investigated abiotic and biological degradation of RDX in contaminated aquifer material. Anoxic batch systems were started with and without pre-aeration of aquifer material to distinguish initial biological RDX reduction from abiotic RDX reduction. Aerating the sediment eliminated chemical reductants in the native aquifer sediment, primarily Fe(II) sorbed to mineral surfaces. RDX (50 μM) was completely reduced and transformed to ring cleavage products when excess concentrations (2 mM) of acetate or lactate were provided as the electron donor for aerated sediment. RDX was reduced concurrently with Fe(III) when acetate was provided, while RDX, Fe(III), and sulfate were reduced simultaneously with lactate amendment. Betaproteobacteria were the dominant microorganisms associated with RDX and Fe(III)/sulfate reduction. In particular, Rhodoferax spp. increased from 21% to 35% and from 28% to 60% after biostimulation by acetate and lactate, respectively. Rarefaction analyses demonstrated that microbial diversity decreased in electron-donor-amended systems with active RDX degradation. Although significant amounts of Fe(III) and/or sulfate were reduced after biostimulation, solid-phase reactive minerals such as magnetite or ferrous sulfides were not observed, suggesting that RDX reduction in the aquifer sediment is due to Fe(II) adsorbed to solid surfaces as a result of Fe(III)-reducing microbial activity. These results suggest that both biotic and abiotic processes play an important role in RDX reduction under in situ conditions.

Microbial Community Composition during Anaerobic Mineralization of tert-Butyl Alcohol (TBA) in Fuel-Contaminated Aquifer Material

Anaerobic mineralization of tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) were studied in sediment incubations prepared with fuel-contaminated aquifer material. Microbial community compositions in all incubations were characterized by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA). The aquifer material mineralized 42.3±9.9% of [U-(14)C]-TBA to 14CO2 without electron acceptor amendment. Fe(III), sulfate, and Fe(III) plus anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate addition also promoted U-[14C]-TBA mineralization at levels similar to those of the unamended controls. Nitrate actually inhibited TBA mineralization relative to unamended controls. In contrast to TBA, [U-(14)C]-MTBE was not significantly mineralized in 400 days regardless of electron acceptor amendment. Microbial community analysis indicated that the abundance of one dominant clone group correlated closely with anaerobic TBA mineralization. The clone was phylogenetically distinct from known aerobic TBA-degrading microorganisms, Fe(III)- or sulfate-reducing bacteria. It was most closely associated with organisms belonging to the alphaproteobacteria. Microbial communities were different in MTBE and TBA amended incubations. Shannon indices and Simpson indices (statistical community comparison tools) both demonstrated that microbial community diversity decreased in incubations actively mineralizing TBA, with distinct "dominant" clones developing. These data contribute to our understanding of anaerobic microbial transformation of fuel oxygenates in contaminated aquifer material and the organisms that may catalyze the reactions.

Impact of Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron on Geochemistry and Microbial Populations in Trichloroethylene Contaminated Aquifer Materials

Nanoscale zerovalent iron (NZVI) particles are a promising technology for reducing trichloroethylene (TCE) contamination in the subsurface. Prior to injecting large quantities of nanoparticles into the groundwater it is important to understand what impact the particles will have on the geochemistry and indigenous microbial communities. Microbial populations are important not only for nutrient cycling, but also for contaminant remediation and heavy metal immobilization. Microcosms were used to determine the effects of NZVI addition on three different aquifer materials from TCE contaminated sites in Alameda Point, CA, Mancelona, MI, and Parris Island, SC. The oxidation and reduction potential of the microcosms consistently decreased by more than 400 mV when NZVI was added at 1.5 g/L concentrations. Sulfate concentrations decreased in the two coastal aquifer materials, and methane was observed in the presence of NZVI in Alameda Point microcosms, but not in the other two materials. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) showed significant shifts in Eubacterial diversity just after the Fe(0) was exhausted, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses showed increases of the dissimilatory sulfite reductase gene (dsrA) and Archaeal 16s rRNA genes, indicating that reducing conditions and hydrogen created by NZVI stimulate both sulfate reducer and methanogen populations. Adding NZVI had no deleterious effect on total bacterial abundance in the microcosms. NZVI with a biodegradable polyaspartate coating increased bacterial populations by an order of magnitude relative to controls. The lack of broad bactericidal effect, combined with the stimulatory effect of polyaspartate coatings, has positive implications for NZVI field applications.

Dechlorinating and Iron Reducing Bacteria Distribution in a TCE‐Contaminated Aquifer

Dehalorespiration bioremediation has been considered for chlorinated compound removal from two trichloroethene contaminated groundwater plumes in the OU 5 area of Hill Air Force Base, Utah. The distributions and population densities of the 16S rRNA genes of Bacteria, Dehalococcoides ethenogenes, Desulfuromonas michiganensis, Geobacter spp. and Rhodoferax ferrireducens‐like bacteria, as well as the functional genes trichloroethene reductive dehalogenase (tceA) and vinyl chloride reductase (vcrA) were determined in contaminated aquifer material samples. The influence of aquifer physical and chemical properties, including iron availability, on these distributions was evaluated. Twenty aquifer cores were collected. DNA was extracted and analyzed using real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‐qPCR) to quantify the gene densities. Dehalococcoides population densities were low and unevenly distributed. D. michiganensis was found in 12 cores while Geobacter spp. were found in 8 cores. Rhodoferax ferrireducens‐like bacteria were widely distributed. The vcrA gene distribution was relatively uniform and broad but the tceA gene was detectable in only 2 cores. Gene distribution was not related to core clusters derived from physical/chemical characteristics.

Enhanced bioremediation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) by microbial consortia obtained from contaminated aquifer material

A microcosm study was carried out to evaluate the potential for biodegradation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) impacting groundwater at a former oil refinery site located in Naples (SW Italy). A screening of aerobic, anaerobic and co-metabolic aerobic conditions was carried out by triplicate batch reactors, using contaminated soil and groundwater from the study site. All microcosms were amended with ammonium and phosphate salts and, if aerobic, they were supplied with excess oxygen throughout the static incubation period of 6 months. Propane, pentane and n-hexane were selected as the primary substrates for co-metabolic treatments. After the initial lag phase (40–60 d), quantitative MTBE decay was repeatedly observed in the aerobic set amended only with nitrogen and phosphorus and further fed with MTBE, thus suggesting that the indigenous soil bacteria have the ability to degrade MTBE. All other treatments, i.e., anaerobic and co-metabolic aerobic, resulted unsuccessful after incubation extending up to 190 d. Bacterial consortia in the active microcosms were later enriched and further studied through second and third generation batch reactors with no soil, operated under continuous mixing for 5–7 months. MTBE degradation rate progressively increased with reactor operating time, following a zero order kinetics in the concentration range 1–10 mg L −1 and leading to a residual concentration of less than 10 μg L −1. The calculated maximum biodegradation rate was 20 mg MTBE g VSS −1 h −1. An accumulation of nitrite ions also occurred after long operating times, thus inhibiting MTBE degradation. This effect was minimized by replacing ammonium with nitrate. Identified degradation intermediates were tert-butyl alcohol and tert-butyl formate. Fluorescent in situ hybridization was applied for a preliminary microbiological screening of the consortia, suggesting that the detected cocci (about 0.5 and 1.5 μm diameter, respectively) and long bacilli with a narrow diameter might be as yet undescribed species.

Quantitative PCR Confirms Purity of Strain GT, a Novel Trichloroethene-to-Ethene-Respiring Dehalococcoides Isolate

A novel Dehalococcoides isolate capable of metabolic trichloroethene (TCE)-to-ethene reductive dechlorination was obtained from contaminated aquifer material. Growth studies and 16S rRNA gene-targeted analyses suggested culture purity; however, the careful quantitative analysis of Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA gene and chloroethene reductive dehalogenase gene (i.e., vcrA, tceA, and bvcA) copy numbers revealed that the culture consisted of multiple, distinct Dehalococcoides organisms. Subsequent transfers, along with quantitative PCR monitoring, yielded isolate GT, possessing only vcrA. These findings suggest that commonly used qualitative 16S rRNA gene-based procedures are insufficient to verify purity of Dehalococcoides cultures. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that strain GT is affiliated with the Pinellas group of the Dehalococcoides cluster and shares 100% 16S rRNA gene sequence identity with two other Dehalococcoides isolates, strain FL2 and strain CBDB1. The new isolate is distinct, as it respires the priority pollutants TCE, cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cis-DCE), 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE), and vinyl chloride (VC), thereby producing innocuous ethene and inorganic chloride. Strain GT dechlorinated TCE, cis-DCE, 1,1-DCE, and VC to ethene at rates up to 40, 41, 62, and 127 micromol liter-1 day-1, respectively, but failed to dechlorinate PCE. Hydrogen was the required electron donor, which was depleted to a consumption threshold concentration of 0.76+/-0.13 nM with VC as the electron acceptor. In contrast to the known TCE dechlorinating isolates, strain GT dechlorinated TCE to ethene with very little formation of chlorinated intermediates, suggesting that this type of organism avoids the commonly observed accumulation of cis-DCE and VC during TCE-to-ethene dechlorination.

Engineered Polymeric Nanoparticles for Bioremediation of Hydrophobic Contaminants

Sorption of hydrophobic organic contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), to soil has been shown to limit their solubilization rate and mobility. In addition, sequestration of contaminants by sorption to soil and by partitioning in nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) reduces their bioavailability. Polymeric nano-network particles have been demonstrated to increase the "effective" solubility of a representative hydrophobic organic contaminant, phenanthrene (PHEN) and to enhance the release of PHEN from contaminated aquifer material. In this study, we investigate the usefulness of nanoparticles made from a poly(ethylene) glycol modified urethane acrylate (PMUA) precursor chain, in enhancing the bioavailability of PHEN. PMUA nanoparticles are shown to increase the mineralization rate of PHEN crystal in water, PHEN sorbed on aquifer material, and PHEN dissolved in a model NAPL (hexadecane) in the presence of aquifer media. These results show that PMUA particles not only enhance the release of sorbed and NAPL-sequestered PHEN but also increase its mineralization rate. The accessibility of contaminants in PMUA particles to bacteria also suggests that particle application may be an effective means to enhance the in-situ biodegradation rate in remediation through natural attenuation of contaminants. In pump-and-treat or soil washing remediation schemes, bioreactors could be used to recycle extracted nanoparticles. The properties of PMUA nanoparticles are shown to be stable in the presence of a heterogeneous active bacterial population, enabling them to be reused after PHEN bound to the particles has been degraded by bacteria.

Batch-test study on the dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in contaminated aquifer material by zero-valent iron

Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons are common groundwater contaminants. One possible remediation option is in-situ reductive dechlorination by zero-valent iron, either by direct injection or as reactive barriers. Chlorinated ethenes (tetrachloroethene: PCE; trichloroethene: TCE) have received extensive attention in this context. However, another common groundwater pollutant, 1,1,1-trichlorethane (TCA), has attracted much less attention. We studied TCA reduction by three types of granular zero-valent irons in a series of batch experiments using polluted groundwater, with and without added aquifer material. Two types of iron were able to reduce TCA completely with no daughter product concentration increases (1,1-dichloroethane: DCA; chloroethane: CA). One type of iron showed slower reduction, with intermediate rise of DCA and CA concentrations. When evaluating the formation of daughter products, the tests on the groundwater alone showed different results than the groundwater plus aquifer batches: DCA did not temporarily accumulate in the batches with added aquifer material, contrary to the batches without added aquifer material. 1,1-dichloroethene (DCE, also present in the groundwater as an abiotic degradation product of TCA) was also reduced slower in the batches without added aquifer material than in the batches with aquifer material. Redox potentials gradually decreased to low values in batches with aquifer material without iron, while the batches with groundwater alone maintained a constant higher redox potential.Either adsorption processes or microbiological activity in the samples could explain these phenomena. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR: a targeted gene probe technique) for chlorinated aliphatic compound (CAH)-degrading bacteria confirmed the presence of Dehalococcoides sp. (chloroethene-degraders) but was negative for Desulfobacterium autotrophicum (a known co-metabolic TCA degrader). DCA reduction was rate determining: first-order half-lives of 300–350 h were observed. TCA was fully removed within hours. CA is resistant to reduction by zero-valent iron but it is known to hydrolyze easily. Since CA did not accumulate in our batches, it may have disappeared by the latter mechanism or it may not have formed as a major daughter product.

Batch-test study on the dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in contaminated aquifer material by zero-valent iron

Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons are common groundwater contaminants. One possible remediation option is in-situ reductive dechlorination by zero-valent iron, either by direct injection or as reactive barriers. Chlorinated ethenes (tetrachloroethene: PCE; trichloroethene: TCE) have received extensive attention in this context. However, another common groundwater pollutant, 1,1,1-trichlorethane (TCA), has attracted much less attention. We studied TCA reduction by three types of granular zero-valent irons in a series of batch experiments using polluted groundwater, with and without added aquifer material. Two types of iron were able to reduce TCA completely with no daughter product concentration increases (1,1-dichloroethane: DCA; chloroethane: CA). One type of iron showed slower reduction, with intermediate rise of DCA and CA concentrations. When evaluating the formation of daughter products, the tests on the groundwater alone showed different results than the groundwater plus aquifer batches: DCA did not temporarily accumulate in the batches with added aquifer material, contrary to the batches without added aquifer material. 1,1-dichloroethene (DCE, also present in the groundwater as an abiotic degradation product of TCA) was also reduced slower in the batches without added aquifer material than in the batches with aquifer material. Redox potentials gradually decreased to low values in batches with aquifer material without iron, while the batches with groundwater alone maintained a constant higher redox potential. Either adsorption processes or microbiological activity in the samples could explain these phenomena. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR: a targeted gene probe technique) for chlorinated aliphatic compound (CAH)-degrading bacteria confirmed the presence of Dehalococcoides sp. (chloroethene-degraders) but was negative for Desulfobacterium autotrophicum (a known co-metabolic TCA degrader). DCA reduction was rate determining: first-order half-lives of 300–350 h were observed. TCA was fully removed within hours. CA is resistant to reduction by zero-valent iron but it is known to hydrolyze easily. Since CA did not accumulate in our batches, it may have disappeared by the latter mechanism or it may not have formed as a major daughter product.

Effect of ethanol and methyl‐Tert‐butyl ether on monoaromatic hydrocarbon biodegradation: Response variability for different aquifer materials under various electron‐accepting conditions

Aquifer microcosms were used to determine how ethanol and methyl-tert-butyl ether (MtBE) affect monoaromatic hydrocarbon degradation under different electron-accepting conditions commonly found in contaminated sites experiencing natural attenuation. Response variability was investigated by using aquifer material from four sites with different exposure history. The lag phase prior to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) and ethanol degradation was typically shorter in microcosms with previously contaminated aquifer material, although previous exposure did not always result in high degradation activity. Toluene was degraded in all aquifer materials and generally under a broader range of electron-accepting conditions compared to benzene, which was degraded only under aerobic conditions. The MtBE was not degraded within 100 d under any condition, and it did not affect BTEX or ethanol degradation patterns. Ethanol was often degraded before BTEX compounds and had a variable effect on BTEX degradation as a function of electron-accepting conditions and aquifer material source. An occasional enhancement of toluene degradation by ethanol occurred in denitrifying microcosms with unlimited nitrate; this may be attributable to the fortuitous growth of toluene-degrading bacteria during ethanol degradation. Nevertheless, experiments with flow-through aquifer columns showed that this beneficial effect could be eclipsed by an ethanol-driven depletion of electron acceptors, which significantly inhibited BTEX degradation and is probably the most important mechanism by which ethanol could hinder BTEX natural attenuation. A decrease in natural attenuation could increase the likelihood that BTEX compounds reach a receptor as well as the potential duration of exposure.

Use of Amphiphilic Polymer Particles for In Situ Extraction of Sorbed Phenanthrene from a Contaminated Aquifer Material

Amphiphilic polyurethane (APU) nano-network polymer particles were tested for their efficiency to remove a model hydrophobic pollutant (phenanthrene) from a contaminated sandy aquifer material. Results from batch experiments indicated that the APU particles were weakly adsorbed onto the aquifer sand (KdP = 0.0063 mL/g). In column experiments, 97 to 98% of applied APU particles were recovered after passage of 2 to 3 pore-volumes of rinse water. The chemically cross-linked nature of the APU particles and ionic functional groups on particle surfaces decrease their affinity to adsorb onto the soil. APU nano-network suspensions extracted up to 98% of the phenanthrene sorbed on the aquifer material with extremely low loss of particles. Passage of fewer pore-volumes of an APU emulsion was needed to achieve a given level of remediation relative to results reported for surfactant solutions. Although the concentration of APU particles in the washing solution was greater than the reported concentrations used for sur...

Geothrix fermentans gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel Fe(III)-reducing bacterium from a hydrocarbon-contaminated aquifer.

In an attempt to understand better the micro-organisms involved in anaerobic degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons in the Fe(III)-reducing zone of petroleum-contaminated aquifers, Fe(III)-reducing micro-organisms were isolated from contaminated aquifer material that had been adapted for rapid oxidation of toluene coupled to Fe(III) reduction. One of these organisms, strain H-5T, was enriched and isolated on acetate/Fe(III) medium. Strain H-5T is a Gram-negative strict anaerobe that grows with various simple organic acids such as acetate, propionate, lactate and fumarate as alternative electron donors with Fe(III) as the electron acceptor. In addition, strain H-5T also oxidizes long-chain fatty acids such as palmitate with Fe(III) as the sole electron acceptor. Strain H-5T can also grow by fermentation of citrate or fumarate in the absence of an alternative electron acceptor. The primary end-products of citrate fermentation are acetate and succinate. In addition to various forms of soluble and insoluble Fe(III), strain H-5T grows with nitrate, Mn(IV), fumarate and the humic acid analogue 2,6-anthraquinone disulfonate as alternative electron acceptors. As with other organisms that can oxidize organic compounds completely with the reduction of Fe(III), cell suspensions of strain H-5T have absorbance maxima indicative of a c-type cytochrome(s). It is proposed that strain H-5T represents a novel genus in the Holophaga-Acidobacterium phylum and that it should be named Geothrix fermentans sp. nov., gen. nov.

Diisopropanolamine Biodegradation Potential at Sour Gas Plants

AbstractThe potential for aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation of a sour gas treatment chemical, diisopropanolamine (DIPA), was studied using contaminated aquifer materials from three sour gas treatment sites in western Canada. DIPA was found to be readily consumed under aerobic conditions at 8°C and 28°C in shake flask cultures incubated with aquifer material from each of the sites, and this removal was characterized by first‐order kinetics. In addition, DIPA biodegradation was found to occur under nitrate‐, Min(IV)., and Fe(III)‐reducing conditions at 28°C, and in some cases at 8°C, in laboratory microcosms, DIPA loss corresponded to consumption of nitrate, and production of Mn(II) and Fe(II) in viable microcosms compared to corresponding sterile controls. A threshold DIPA concentration near 40 mg/L was observed in the anaerobic microcosms. This report provides the first evidence that DIPA is biodegraded under anaerobic conditions, and our data suggest that biodegradation may contribute to DIPA attenuation under aerobic and anaerobic conditions in aquifers contaminated with this sour gas treatment chemical.

Pentachlorophenol and phenanthrene biodegradation in creosote contaminated aquifer material

Contamination of the subsurface environment at the Libby Superfund Site, Montana, includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and pentachlorophenol due to accidental spills and improper disposal of wood preserving wastes. Biodegradation is a treatment technology gaining wide application in the treatment of hazardous waste sites. A microcosm study was conducted to evaluate the effect of temperature, sampling depth, nutrient addition, and oxygen on the biodegradation potential of phenanthrene and pentachlorophenol in aquifer samples using radiolabeled chemicals. Mineralization of phenanthrene reached 14% but was less than 1% for pentachlorophenol over the 56 day incubation period. Phenanthrene mineralization in microcosms at 10°C was not significantly different from those at 20°C. This may have been due to microbial community acclimation to lower temperatures at the site. Average volatilization was less than 2% for both phenanthrene and pentachlorophenol. After 56 days, most of the radiolabeled chemical was either solvent extractable or soil bound.

Biodegradation of aromatic compounds under mixed oxygen/denitrifying conditions: a review.

Bioremediation of aromatic hydrocarbons in groundwater and sediments is often limited by dissolved oxygen. Many aromatic hydrocarbons degrade very slowly or not at all under anaerobic conditions. Nitrate is a good alternative electron acceptor to oxygen, and denitrifying bacteria are commonly found in the subsurface and in association with contaminated aquifer materials. Providing both nitrate and microaerophilic levels of oxygen may result in oxidation of the stable benzene rings in aromatic contaminants and allow for the intermediates of this oxidation to degrade via denitrification. The effects of using mixed electron acceptors on biodegradation of subsurface contaminants is unclear. Below some critical oxygen threshold, aerobic biodegradation is inhibited, however high levels of oxygen inhibit denitrification. The mechanisms which regulate electron transfer to oxygen and nitrate are complex. This review: 1) describes the factors which may affect the utilization of oxygen and nitrate as dual electron acceptors during biodegradation; 2) summarizes the incidence of dual use of nitrate and oxygen (aerobic denitrification); and 3) presents evidence of the effectiveness of bioremediation under mixed oxygen/nitrate conditions.

Bioremediation of a diesel fuel contaminated aquifer: simulation studies in laboratory aquifer columns

The in situ bioremediation of aquifers contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons is commonly based on the infiltration of groundwater supplemented with oxidants (e.g., O 2, NO 3 −) and nutrients (e.g., NH 4 +, PO 4 3−). These additions stimulate the microbial activity in the aquifer and several field studies describing the resulting processes have been published. However, due to the heterogeneity of the subsurface and due to the limited number of observation wells usually available, these field data do not offer a sufficient spatial and temporal resolution. In this study, flow-through columns of 47-cm length equipped with 17 sampling ports were filled with homogeneously contaminated aquifer material from a diesel fuel contaminated in situ bioremediation site. The columns were operated over 96 days at 12°C with artificial groundwater supplemented with O 2, NO 3 − and PO 4 3−. Concentration profiles of O 2, NO 3 −, NO 2 −, dissolved inorganic and organic carbon (DIC and DOC, respectively), protein, microbial cells and total residual hydrocarbons were measured. Within the first 12 cm, corresponding to a mean groundwater residence time of < 3.6 h, a steep O 2 decrease from 4.6 to < 0.3 mg l −1, denitrification, a production of DIC and DOC, high microbial cell numbers and a high removal of hydrocarbons were observed. Within a distance of 24 to 40.5 cm from the infiltration, O 2 was below 0.1 mg l −1 and a denitrifying activity was found. In the presence and in the absence of O 2, n-alkanes were preferentially degraded compared to branched alkanes. The results demonstrate that: (1) infiltration of aerobic groundwater into columns filled with aquifer material contaminated with hydrocarbons leads to a rapid depletion of O 2; (2) O 2 and NO 3 − can serve as oxidants for the mineralization of hydrocarbons; and (3) the modelling of redox processes in aquifers has to consider denitrifying activity in presence of O 2.