Container Terminal Operations Research Articles

Container terminals' efficiency with the unexpected output: a revised SBM approach.

Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from port operations are a major environmental factor contributing to the problem of climate change. To cope with this challenge, International Maritime Organization (IMO) and port governments in nations have developed stringent regulations to curb the release of GHGs and other pollutants. To contribute a methodology towards the reduction in air pollution at port areas, the paper aims to assess container terminals' (CTs) efficiency by considering the unexpected output (i.e., CO2 emissions) in their operations by a revised SBM-DEA model. The main originality of this paper includes (1) using cluster analysis to determine the homogeneity of decision-making units (DMUs), (2) proposing the power utilization approach to estimate the amount of CO2 emissions released by container terminal operators (CTOs), (3) incorporating CO2 emissions into the assessment model to provide a complete efficiency ranking for CTs, and (4) developing the revised SBM to estimate efficiency scores for CT operations. Finally, 12 CTOs affiliated with the SNP corporation of Vietnam were empirically employed to validate the research model. Based on the result from the proposed research model, CTOs might reduce the amount of CO2 emissions by adopting the slack variables while guaranteeing their operating efficiency.

A risk assessment framework based on ergonomic methods and AHP for prioritizing interventions to prevent container terminal operator's musculoskeletal disorders

Tasks and procedures involving lashing/unlashing operators have evident ergonomic criticalities but looking at the scientific background and on actual regulations there is a lack of attention toward procedures for a full ergonomic risk assessment. There are no scientific articles, no normative and standards that report ergonomic assessments for lashing and unlashing operations. According to this research gap, the proposed research seeks to contribute at different levels: carrying out a context analysis on how lashing and unlashing operations are carried out; identifying tools and methodologies that can support a comprehensive ergonomic analysis; combining the elements mentioned above in a risks assessment framework for ergonomic evaluation and prioritization. While pursuing such goals, the authors came up with a risk assessment framework based on simulation coupled with ergonomic methods and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). An application of the framework has been conducted in an Italian container terminal in 2021. First, processes and tasks have been analyzed to develop a simulation model capable of reproducing the evolution over the time of the real system. As next step, the ergonomic issues related to lashing/unlashing operations have been identified by applying the ergonomic methods through the simulation model. Finally, AHP has been used to rank, in an analytical way, critical ergonomic operations and to establish priority of interventions. The identification of critical ergonomic issues along with their analytical prioritization provide operations management as well as normative and standard makers with meaningful inputs towards greater standardization of procedures, based on ergonomic factors, in container terminal sector.

Scheduling quay cranes and shuttle vehicles simultaneously with limited apron buffer capacity

How to schedule quay cranes (QCs) and shuttle vehicles (SVs) simultaneously or model them in an integrated scheduling problem is one of the most important problems in operations and management of a container terminal. This paper investigates an integrated QC and SV scheduling problem constrained by apron buffer capacity. In this problem, the decisions to make include the bay-to-QC assignment, the QC-bay sequence, the QC-job sequence, the job-to-SV assignment and the SV-job sequence. First, a mixed-integer linear programming model is formulated for this problem to minimize the makespan. Second, the relationships and interactive variables among the four segments of constraints of the proposed model (i.e., scheduling QCs for vessel bays, sequencing jobs handled by a QC in each bay, scheduling SVs for jobs, apron buffer capacity constraints for each vessel bay) are analyzed to present three rules: vessel block rule, near-to-far rule and full-buffer rule. Finally, a sequential insertion algorithm, a greedy insertion algorithm and an improved genetic algorithm are proposed to solve mid- and large-sized cases for the problem. Numerical experiments show that the algorithms perform well, compared to the off-the-shelf solver. Based on these experiments, managerial implications are discussed for container terminal operations and management.

An exact algorithm for scheduling tandem quay crane operations in container terminals

This study investigates the scheduling problem of the tandem quay crane (TQC), which is a new type of loading/unloading device used at container terminals. The TQC can execute either a single-lift or tandem-lift at a time. Considering the changeover time between the above two operational modes of the TQC and the weight limitation for executing a tandem-lift, a novel integer linear programming model is established to minimize the time needed for unloading the containers from the containership, and valid inequalities are introduced to enhance the model. Then, an exact algorithm based on logic-based Benders decomposition is applied to solve the problem. The proposed approach decomposes the problem into a mode-assignment master problem and an operation-sequencing slave problem. Logic-based cuts are proposed to ensure the convergence of the algorithm, and several enhancement measures are developed to accelerate the convergence speed. The computational results indicate that the model is superior to the previous model proposed in the literature, and the proposed inequalities are effective. Moreover, the exact algorithm was verified to be efficient for solving realistically sized instances within an acceptable time.

Research on the Beibu Gulf Port Container Terminal Operation System Construction Performance Evaluation Based on the AISM-ANP

With the continuous development of smart ports, the construction of port information systems has become the construction focus of the future development of such ports. However, the existing performance evaluation system for port information systems represents a research gap. It cannot effectively achieve specific improvement in the construction of information systems for port services and capabilities. In this paper, an evaluation index system was forged from the three perspectives of the operating level, management capability, and economic efficiency. As a first step, starting from the current situation of Beibu Gulf Port (Port B) construction, the three dimensions of the evaluation index system were determined using the scheme of literature review, questionnaire research, and fieldwork. Additionally, through adversarial interpretive structural modeling (AISM), it is concluded that the port loading and unloading operation capability and service level are the fundamental factors for measuring the construction performance of the container terminal operation system (CTOS). The results are used as input to construct an analytic network process (ANP) model to obtain the index weights. Finally, the gray clustering method (GCM) is introduced to construct a quantitative evaluation model to quantitatively evaluate the construction performance of the Port B CTOS. The quantitative benefits brought by the construction of the CTOS are finally verified. The scores of the corresponding dimensions of the port before and after the construction of the CTOS system in Beibu Gulf Port are obtained experimentally. The conclusion shows that the construction of CTOS makes the port operating level module improve the most, from 40.023 to 70.733 points; at the same time, it is found that two aspects, i.e., green security and economic benefits, in current construction are directions requiring further work in future port construction. Finally, a visualized quantitative analysis and evaluation method for the performance of smart port construction is proposed.

Integrated scheduling of yard cranes, external trucks, and internal trucks in maritime container terminal operation

ABSTRACT The operations of yard cranes, external trucks and internal trucks in a maritime container terminal have an important impact on the operational efficiency of the terminal. A multi-objective optimization model is formulated in this paper, with a novel truck-based partition strategy, for a multiple-yard-crane scheduling problem, whose objective is to minimize both total longitudinal distance of yard cranes and total waiting time of internal and external trucks. The proposed model solves the truck assignment subproblem and the yard crane routing subproblem simultaneously to figure out how the trucks are to be served in an optimal manner by each yard crane and the optimal rank of each truck by which each yard crane provides container handling services in order. The effectiveness of the integrated truck-based and block-based scheduling strategies is validated by comparing with the existing strategies. Both the integrated block-based and the integrated truck-based scheduling strategies balance the two conflicting objectives better than the prioritized scheduling strategy and the first-come-first-served scheduling strategy. Numerical experiments shows that the advantage of the two integrated strategies is related to the ratio of the number of yard cranes to the number of container blocks. Some implications for port operation policy are also discussed.

Maritime container terminal infrastructure, network corporatization, and global terminal operators: Implications for international business policy

Maritime shipping lines and global terminal operators have benefited from economies of scale to expand geographically and functionally their infrastructure, leading to a corporatized network. Terminal operators are key asset managers seeking value creation by expanding the global maritime container terminal infrastructure network. While corporatization has systematically ensured that terminal capacity was created to accommodate the rise in global trade volumes, the network hit its boundaries when confronted with COVID-19 induced global supply chain disruptions. This paper provides a better understanding of the importance of infrastructure and observed corporatization as a framework for explaining economic processes, notably when transport infrastructures are extensive and capital-intensive. The structure of the global container shipping network is analyzed to unveil the realities of liner service networks operated by shipping lines, and the market structure and consolidation in container shipping and terminal operations. The discussion on the corporatization of the global maritime infrastructure network for container handling is embedded in international business literature. This study also extracts the main implications of the current structure and governance of the global maritime infrastructure network for international business policy, with a particular focus on the current market structure and network resilience.

Optimizing the number of deployed yard cranes in a container terminal

Container terminals play an essential role in the current global supply chain, and their efficiency influences businesses throughout the supply chain. One of the most critical decisions in the operation of container terminals is the number of deployed rubber tyred gantry (RTG) cranes to handle the containers. The RTG crane is the main equipment that handles containers in the stacking area of many container terminals worldwide. Every shift, container terminal operators decide how many RTG cranes are needed to stack and retrieve containers. This decision, if made optimally, can significantly improve the daily throughput of terminals and dramatically reduce port congestion. This article aims to determine the optimal number of RTG cranes in a container terminal by formulating the problem as a mixed-integer linear program. Our proposed formulation can find optimal solutions efficiently, usually in less than a second. The results show that the workload, storage capacity, and shift duration significantly influence the optimal number of RTG cranes.

Simultaneous Allocation and Scheduling of Quay Cranes, Yard Cranes, and Trucks in Dynamical Integrated Container Terminal Operations

We present a dynamical modeling of integrated (end-to-end) container terminal operations using finite state machine (FSM) framework where each state machine is represented by a discrete-event system (DES) formulation. The hybrid model incorporates the operations of quay cranes (QC), internal trucks (IT), and yard cranes (YC) and also the selection of storage positions in container yard (CY) and vessel bays. The QC and YC are connected by the IT in our models. As opposed to the commonly adapted modeling in container terminal operations, in which the entire information/inputs to the systems are known for a defined planning horizon, in this research we use real-time trucks, crane, and container storage operations information, which are always updated as the time evolves. The dynamical model shows that the predicted state variables closely follow the actual field data from a container terminal in Tanjung Priuk, Jakarta, Indonesia. Subsequently, using the integrated container terminal hybrid model, we proposed a model predictive algorithm (MPA) to obtain the near-optimal solution of the integrated terminal operations problem, namely the simultaneous allocation and scheduling of QC, IT, and YC, as well as selecting the storage location for the inbound and outbound containers in the CY and vessel. The numerical experiment based on the extensive Monte Carlo simulation and real dataset show that the MPA outperforms by 3-6% both of the policies currently implemented by the terminal operator and the state-of-the-art method from the current literature.

Analysis of industry 4.0 and their impact on port environmental management

Industry 4.0 (I4.0) is a reality in several business segments worldwide. Technologies (I4.0) collaborate to improve production processes, in manufacturing or in services. The use of these technologies in port operations for container handling can assist in environmental management and allows the service system to be sustainable. This research analyzed the use of technologies from I4.0, applied in port handling operations of containers, to verify their impact on environmental management. Some ports, of great international relevance, were searched for data collection regarding the use of I4.0 technologies and environmental management (port sustainability). These data were analyzed to understand the relationship between those technologies and sustainability in logistics operations (green operation). The focus of this study was to analyses some container terminal operations of five ports, to assess the use of I4.0 technologies and their impact, or not, on sustainable environmental management. The method of carrying out the research was the application of an online questionnaire to five Ports: Los Angeles (USA), Hamburg (Germany), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Singapore (Singapore) and Busan (South Korea) exclusively for container terminals. Public materials available on the websites of each port were also used. The questionnaire was developed by reviewing the literature on the topic (Digital Business – I4.0 and Sustainability – green operations). An online survey to collect information took place between September-2019 to June-2020, which was complemented with publicly accessible material on the internet. The collected data were treated statistically for analysis of the research information applied in the ports (mean, standard deviation, significance level, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, critical statistical value, correspondence analysis and relative frequency). Overall information was collected from 20 container terminals. Experts (managers and supervisors) responded the online survey.

A safety compliance model for container terminal operations: the roles of the safety climate, non-compliance cost and safety self-efficacy

ABSTRACT The safety of terminal operations is the foundation of international commercial port operations. One of the main safety issues in the ports is that operators often fail to comply with safety codes. The existing literature has shown that the safety climate, safety self-efficacy, and safety compliance each play an important role in a company’s safety management, and this paper seeks to establish a safety compliance model in the maritime context. In particular, the research introduces the concept of non-compliance cost and explores the relationships between safety compliance and the non-compliance cost, the safety climate and safety self-efficacy. The researchers conducted an empirical study at container terminals in Taiwan, and applied the Hierarchical Linear Model to analyze the empirical data. The results of this study reveal that an organization’s safety climate, non-compliance cost and the employees’ safety self-efficacy positively affect worker safety compliance. Among these factors, the non-compliance cost has a mediating effect that mediates the relationship between the safety climate and safety compliance, although the non-compliance cost does not mediate the relationship between the employees’ safety self-efficacy and safety compliance. Based on these findings, this article discusses the theoretical and practical implications for safety management.

THE IMPACT OF INTERNAL LOGISTICS DEVELOPMENT ON THE CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATION MODES

The applied significance of the potential capabilities of a container involved in the transportation of goods in the Hinterland zone, which presuppose the external manifestation of its transport characteristics in system interaction with other objects and participants in the process, is investigated in the paper. It is noted that the level of potential (maximum) carrying capacity of a heavy container in the Hinterland zone is a reflection of the organizational and technological conditions of its operation, and the value of the achieved carrying capacity characterizes the level of logistics development at the polygon under consideration. A number of scenarios for container handling organization in the Hinterland zone are classified and described. The dependencies are revealed and a mathematical apparatus for assessing the use of the transport potential of the container is presented. It is emphasized that the task of developing the transportation capabilities of the system under consideration involves reducing the length of transportation routes and developing measures to ensure the most complete loading of vehicles and increasing the average speed of transportation with existing restrictions on related operations (for example, loading and unloading). The problem of calculating the assessment of the development of Hinterland internal logistics as an external factor of transportation is formulated. Attention is drawn to the fact that the development of internal logistics does not depend on the presence or absence of goods in the region at the moment. The influence of the internal logistics development level on the modes of the container terminal operation and its service areas is revealed. It is concluded that the level of using the transport potential of container in the Hinterland zone reaches the estimated level of logistics development only with 100 % container loading in both directions and generally does not affect the organization of the transport process at the polygon under consideration.

Economic Efficiency of the Korean Container Terminals: A Stochastic Cost Frontier Approach

Purpose - Recent issues such as vessel enlargement, strengthening of environmental regulations, and port smartization are expected to increase costs and intensify competition in the port industry. In the new normal era, when external growth has reached its limit, the efficient operation of ports is becoming indispensable for achieving sustainable growth. This study aims to identify the determinants of inefficiency by examining the cost structure and efficiency of container terminals in Korea and furthermore propose the political implications to derive the maximization of efficiency.
 Design/methodology - This study estimates the cost function of container terminal operators and identifies the efficiency of container terminals using stochastic cost frontier (SCF) in the first stage. In the second step, the SCF results are compared with the data envelopment analysis (DEA). Last, this paper proposes efficiency determinants on container terminal operation to establish appropriate strategies. Out of the 29 container terminal operators in South Korea, 13 operators participated in the survey. The translog cost function was estimated utilizing a total of 116 observations collected over the 2007-2017 period.
 Findings - Empirical analysis shows that economies of scale exist in Korea’s container ports, which provides a rationale for the government’s policy to establish the global terminal operator by integrating small terminal operators to enhance competitiveness. In addition, as a result of the determinants analysis, container throughput, weight of direct employment costs, and labour cost share have positive effects on improving cost efficiency, while inefficiency increases as the length of quay increases. More specifically, cost efficiency improves as the proportion of direct employment costs to outsourcing service costs increases.
 Originality/value - This study contributes to analyzing the inefficiency factors of container terminals through efficiency analysis with respect to a cost function. In addition, this study proposes the practical and political implications, such as establishing a long-term manpower pool, the application of the hybrid liner terminal system, and the construction of a statistical data system, to improve the cost inefficiency of terminal operators.

Risk assessment of maritime container shipping blockchain-integrated systems: An analysis of multi-event scenarios

Blockchain applications in maritime logistics services face uncertainties and risks, obstructing a broader and more sustainable adoption. Although the operational risk of blockchain-integrated systems (BISs) is significant, studies in this area are still conceptual and scarce. This research is a mixed-methods risk analysis focusing on (1) modeling the risk situation by a connected network of potential disruptive events in container shipping BISs, and (2) applying a quantitative risk analysis with probabilistic indexes considering the multiplicity of multi-event risk scenarios (MESs). Thirty-two telephone interviews with experts from container terminal operators, shipping companies, and freight forwarders helped establish a risk network with the description of 25 vertices and 54 directed connections. The quantitative analysis of 64 web survey responses provided insights and foresight about different characteristics of each risk and causal connection. The results enable a comprehensive view of the potential failure modes of blockchain applications. This study is the first to explore the potential risk situation in container shipping BISs with inputs from the industry. The applied methodological framework expands the toolkit of risk researchers, analysts, and managers against the fast-paced development of digitalization in maritime logistics and supply chain operations.

Assessing the impact of the Boankra inland container terminal on the operational performance of the seaports of Ghana

PurposeTraffic congestion and limited cargo space have for a long time been a herculean challenge hindering the smooth operation of most seaports globally due to an increase in container trade. To provide a lasting solution to these challenges, most contemporary seaports have adopted the strategy of developing inland container terminals to help manage their cargo influx. This study assesses the impact of the Boankra inland container terminal on the operational performance of the seaports of Ghana, taking into consideration the operational performance variables affecting seaport and inland container terminal operations. Methodology/design/approachThe primary data used in this study was gathered using structured questionnaires. A total of 245 responses representing the opinion poll of the key architects involved in container movement to and from the seaports of Ghana was received. The dataset of the study and hypotheses of the model was tested using partial least square structural equation modelling to obtain the model fit. FindingsThe findings of the study suggest that value-added services, location, government policies, intermodal transport system, and capacity of inland container terminal have a direct significant influence on the: output of seaport, the productivity of seaport, utilization of resources, and quality of services offered by a seaport. The findings further reveal that the intermodal transport system of an inland container terminal has no direct significant influence on the output of seaport and utilization of seaport resources even though it might have an indirect significant influence on these variables. OriginalityThe study provides a very insightful and thought-provoking theoretical knowledge on the direct significant relationship between an inland container terminal and its seaports. It also explains how an inland container terminal directly influences the operational performance of its seaports. The study further serves as a guide to policymakers and port authorities on policy formulation towards inland container terminal development and its integration into seaport operations.

Applying data envelopment analysis to allocate incentive bonuses for container terminal operators

Incentive bonus payments for terminal operators are mostly based on the size of throughput growth rate. In most cases, this does not encourage terminal operators to effectively utilize the terminal facilities and equipment. Therefore, it is necessary to establish efficiency and scale of operation as the basis for incentive bonus allocations. The importance of this issue is that in some port governance models, concessions are static agreements where fees and other conditions generally do not change over time. This paper introduces the possibility and advantage of data envelopment analysis (DEA)-based incentive bonus allocations that can ensure that the incentive bonuses allocated to terminal operators are based on both the amount of throughput/throughput increment and production efficiency. To this end, three DEA-based incentive bonus allocation models are proposed for different output items. The results show that the incentive bonus allocation approach proposed in this study effectively takes into account the magnitude of the throughput/throughput increment and production efficiency of terminal operators.

Analysing the Effects of Weather Conditions on Container Terminal Operations Using Machine Learning

Container ships transport a large number of valuable cargoes, and there is a demand for less expensive and faster transportation options. Weather, vessel type, and the nature and amount of the goods are all external elements that might impact container handling times, which are directly related to overall port stay time. In this scope, container terminal operations could be optimised with the help of historical data which provides access to classification and prediction of the cargo handling operations. In this study, the real-time data of a container terminal operation is analysed with different machine learning techniques along with the Fuzzy C-Means clustering method. The results show that Fuzzy C-Means clustering has a positive impact on the explanatory power of models in container terminal operations. The research revealed that an increase in wind speed influences cargo handling time for mobile cranes.

Internationalization Strategies of Emerging-Market Multinational Enterprises: The Case of Investments Made by Yılport Holding in Port Cities in Foreign Countries

The literature on internationalization strategies of multinational enterprises traditionally examines the activities and strategies of multinational enterprises originating from developed markets; besides, it is an area that is developing more rapidly with the multiplier effect of globalization processes. However, in recent years, this field has started to attract attention with the increase in foreign direct investments made by multinational enterprises originating from emerging markets to other countries. In this study, it is aimed to understand the contributions that multinational enterprises originating from emerging markets can make to mainstream theories in the field of international business, and to focus on the differences between emerging-market multinational enterprises and developed market multinational enterprises in terms of internationalization strategies. In this context, Yılport Holding, which is a container terminal operator in Turkey, and recently attracted attention with its foreign direct investments in both developed and emerging markets, by being the 11th largest company on a global scale in a very short time, has been examined as a case study. The fact that Yılport Holding, a multinational company originating from the emerging market, has grown rapidly through acquisitions in a very short time, as well as gaining an unexpected advantage in terms of ownership advantage, branding and courage to enter the market, are all in contradiction with traditional internationalization theories. These can be explained as the efforts of multinational enterprises originating from emerging markets to quickly catch up with and surpassing multinational enterprises originating from developed countries by eliminating various disadvantages arising from these markets.

Container Terminal Berth and Yard Collaborative Allocation for Import and Export Synchronous Operations by Computational Logistics

Container terminal operators have practical and clear requirements on improving operational efficiency and service level to address running challenges. The resource allocation and collaborative scheduling of quayside berth and storage yard are vital issues in the optimization of container terminal handling systems (CTHSs). The allocation of berth in quayside and blocks on storage yard directly affects the running efficiency of CTHS. Consequently, we focus on the berth and yard collaborative allocation for import and export synchronous operations (BYCA-IESOs) and propose the BYCA-IESO research model based on synchronous or asynchronous integrated scheduling strategy by computational logistics. The BYCA-IESO model is a mixed integer quadratic programming model to minimize multiple time consumption of calling liners and the total horizontal transferring distances of yard trailers at container terminals. Furthermore, we design other two allocation policies for comparison on the BYCA-IESO, which are both multistage scheduling strategy profiles. CPLEX 20.1.0 is applied to implement and solve the model and tactics of BYCA-IESO. Accordingly, the feasibility, validity, and relative merits of the models and strategies are obtained and verified by analyzing and comparing multiple numerical experimental results.

Automatic Guided Vehicles Introduction Impacts to Roll-On/Roll-Off Terminals: Simulation and Cost Model Analysis

Automatic guided vehicles (AGVs) have been successfully applied to cargo terminals to reduce operating costs and improve productivity. However, the focus was on container terminal operations. Ports with roll-on/roll-off (RORO) terminals still heavily depend on human resources for the loading/unloading processes. Work operations are affected by human errors and safety issues. In particular, terminals where vehicles cannot be stacked pressure workers to handle cargo more rapidly, which induces more errors. In this study, we propose automating RORO terminal operations by using AGVs. We assessed the impact of AGVs on the productivity, cost efficiency, and environment. A series of simulation models was developed on the basis of the current loading system at an actual port to test the impact of AGVs. Then, we developed a cost model to analyze the economic benefit of AGVs compared with the current loading system. The environmental benefits were also analyzed. Results revealed that a system using 29 AGVs matched the productivity of the current loading system, and using more AGVs increased the productivity. For a given productivity level, the total operating cost of the AGV system was three times less than that of the current system over a 15-year period. The AGV system also showed great potential for improving the environmental friendliness of terminal operations. This is the first study to propose automating RORO terminal operations to improve productivity and sustainability through AGV technology rather than human factors. AGVs are expected to become a good option in the future to address labor shortages and the “untact” era.