Contagious Animal Diseases Research Articles

Overview of animal infectious disease situation in the Republic of Dagestan in 2023

An epizootiological survey of livestock farms of Dagestan was conducted, the main infectious diseases common in the region were considered, and measures taken to protect against them were described. At present, the Veterinary Service is undertaking systematic efforts to prevent the occurrence and spread of infectious diseases such as brucellosis, leukosis, rabies, pasteurellosis, blackleg, bradsot and enterotoxemia in the Republic. Among the above-mentioned diseases reported in 2023, brucellosis and leukosis are responsible for the vast majority of outbreaks and diseased animals detected in them. In particular, the following diseases have the largest share in the nosological profile of quarantinable infectious diseases based on the number of detected infected localities during the period under study: brucellosis (52.63%), bovine leukosis (30.70%), rabies (8.77%), enterotoxemia (3.51%), pasteurellosis (1.75%), bradsot (1.75%) and blackleg (0.88%). In total, 1,812 animals were affected with quarantinable infections and 35 animals died in 114 infected localities. Most often over the past year, quarantinable infections were reported in cattle (69.59% of cases) and small ruminants (29.36%); in 1.05% of cases, the diseases affected horses, cats, wild animals and birds. In order to maintain animal disease freedom and sustainable growth of livestock production, the Veterinary Committee of the Republic of Dagestan annually implements measures to prevent the occurrence and spread of 75 diseases of animals and birds, including 10 highly dangerous ones. Anti-epizootic measures taken in the past year included a total of 93.8 million vaccinations and 6.2 million tests performed in the diagnostic institutions. Plans for the prevention of highly dangerous and other contagious diseases of animals and birds were fully implemented.

Further validation of 2 nonstructural protein-specific antibody tests for diagnosis and surveillance of foot-and-mouth disease in the United States.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. FMD poses an economic threat to the livestock industry in the United States. Due to the potential use of vaccines composed of partially purified structural proteins of the FMD virus (FMDV), it is important to test samples from infected and vaccinated animals with a competitive ELISA that detects antibodies against nonstructural proteins (NSPs) of FMDV. Our study extends the diagnostic validation of the Prionics ELISA (Thermo Fisher) and the VMRD ELISA. We used diverse serum sample sets from bovine, porcine, and other cloven-hoofed animals to evaluate the analytical specificity and sensitivity, diagnostic specificity and sensitivity, and differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) per validation guidelines outlined by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). The 2 tests were analytically 100% accurate. The VMRD test was diagnostically more sensitive than Prionics, but Prionics was diagnostically more specific than the VMRD test. Both tests could tell if animals were infected or vaccinated. Considering these data, both VMRD and Prionics ELISAs can be used for serodetection of FMDV antibodies at the Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and within the National Animal Health Laboratory Network laboratories.

Protein characterization of an Indonesian isolate of foot and mouth disease virus inactivated with formaldehyde and binary ethylenimine.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-footed animals. It is a major threat to livestock production worldwide, causing significant economic losses. Inactivation of FMD virus (FMDV) is crucial for vaccine development and control of outbreaks. However, traditional inactivation methods can sometimes damage the viral protein, affecting vaccine efficacy. Therefore, finding new inactivating agents that effectively inactivate the virus while preserving the integrity of its proteins is an important research area. This study investigated the optimal materials (0.04% formaldehyde, 0.001 M binary ethylenimine [BEI], or a combination) for inactivating and preserving the specific molecular weight of Serotype O FMDV protein. This study used serotype O FMDV isolated from several areas of East Java. The virus was inoculated into baby hamster kidney-21 cells, and the titer was calculated using the TCID50 Assay. The virus was inactivated using 0.04% formaldehyde, 0.001 M BEI, or a combination of 0.04% formaldehyde and 0.001 M BEI. Inactive viral proteins were characterized using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blotting. Serotype O FMDV can be inactivated using 0.04% formaldehyde while preserving specific FMDV proteins, specifically VP0 and VP3 with a molecular weight (MW) of 36 kDa and VP3 with a MW of 24 kDa. Serotype O FMDV can be inactivated by 0.001 M BEI while preserving specific FMDV proteins, specifically VP0 with a MW of 35 kDa, VP3 with a MW of 28 kDa, and VP1 with a MW of 23 kDa. FMDV serotype O can be inactivated using a combination of 0.04% formaldehyde and 0.001 M BEI while preserving specific FMDV proteins, specifically VP0 and VP3 with a MW of 36 kDa and VP3 with a MW of 24 kDa. This study found that 0.04% formaldehyde, alone or in combination with 0.001 M BEI, was effective for inactivating and preserving the specific molecular weight of Serotype O FMDV protein. The limitation of this study was the inactivations of the virus have not yet been tested for their potency on experimental animals. Further research is warranted to investigate the inactivation kinetics of these materials, including their potency on experimental animals. Additionally, a comparison of the inactivation rates between 0.04% formaldehyde alone and the combination with BEI would help to determine the optimal inactivation agent for future applications.

Recombinant 3AB3 nonstructural protein-based indirect ELISA for detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus infection-elicited antibodies in goat.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most important animal diseases of economic significance globally. It is a highly infectious and contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals including sheep and goat. For sero-diagnosis of FMD, recombinant antigen-based assays are considered as alternatives to conventional approaches such as the liquid phase blocking ELISA (LPBE). The early interventions towards control measures cannot be implemented unless the disease gets promptly diagnosed. It is relatively difficult to clinically diagnose FMD in goat due to the usual milder form or unapparent nature of symptoms. Under such situations where clinical samples are not available, demonstration of infection-specific FMD virus (FMDV) antibodies in serum sample may help identifying the animals exposed to the virus in retrospect. Antibody to 3AB nonstructural protein (NSP) has been considered to be the most reliable indicator for FMD diagnosis. The current study extended the earlier designed recombinant 3AB3 protein-based indirect ELISA originally validated on bovine serum samples to testing serum samples of goat. The performance of the indirect ELISA was validated using internationally accepted PrioCHECK® FMDV NS kit. The overall diagnostic sensitivity (DSn) of the indirect ELISA was estimated to be 95.52% (619/648), while the diagnostic specificity (DSp) on naïve and vaccinated animals varied at 98.06% (557/568) and 94.15% (435/462), respectively. In India, where FMD is prevalent and the goat population is so high, this 'in-house' optimized assay can be considered to be an adjunct in sero-epidemiological investigation of FMD in goat.

Rabbit Spleen and Medicinal Herbs: Animal Infectious Diseases, Grassroots Communes, and the State in Maoist China

summary: This article explores how Mao-era China responded to major epizootic and zoonotic diseases. It foregrounds a series of patterns in fighting contagious animal diseases—lockdowns, quarantines, disinfection, mass animal vaccination, mass education, and prioritizing the treatment of infected animals over mass culling—which were together called the Comprehensive Prevention and Treatment (CPT). Shedding light on this understudied topic in the fields of the history of medicine and of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the author argues that it was not the central or provincial governments but rather local communes that led the effort to protect livestock from animal infectious diseases. This article critically demonstrates how the story of the CPT highlights the resilience of communal actors as well as the possibilities and limitations of the Maoist ideal of self-reliance.

EPIZOOTOLOGICAL MONITORING OF THE INCIDENCE OF PARVOVIRUS ENTERITIS IN DOGS IN KOSTANAY, REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

Parvovirus enteritis of dogs is the cause of a highly contagious acute disease of many carnivorous animals, which leads to severe gastroenteritis and myocarditis. Parvovirus infection is characterized by severe enteritis and vomiting, as well as dehydration, fever, leukopenia and diarrhea. The article presents data on the frequency of occurrence of the disease in dogs with parvovirus enteritis in Kostanay, the Republic of Kazakhstan. In order to assess the epizootological situation of parvovirus enteritis, the logs of registration of sick animals, the results of rapid tests for infectious diseases of dogs of private veterinary clinics of the city for the period from 2020 to 2023 were analyzed. The object of the study was dogs of different breeds and age groups. Data analysis has shown that parvovirus enteritis is the most common infectious diseases of dogs. It was diagnosed in 20.3% of veterinary clinic patients, in two forms of intestinal and myocarditis. The disease is seasonal. Infection of dogs with parvovirus occurs mainly in spring (35,6%) and autumn (37,8%). The analysis of the sex and age structure of patients with parvovirus enteritis indicates a greater susceptibility to the disease of puppies under the age of one year. 86% of patients belonged to this age group. Dogs get sick regardless of gender.

Analysis of Strategies to Improve Human Resource Performance in Employees Technical Implementation Unit Paser Belengkong Animal Health Center

The Paser Belengkong Animal Health Center Technical Implementation Unit (Puskeswan) was established in the context of developing animal health services and to support the prevention and control of strategic and contagious animal disease (zoonosis) programs. The concept of UPT Puskeswan Paser Belengkong is to be the spearhead of animal health services in its working area which is modern, advanced, effective, efficient, safe, comfortable. Therefore, to support the implementation of achieving these goals, it is necessary to know the extent of performance conditions and determine strategies for improving the performance of human resources for animal health services at UPT Puskeswan in Paser Belengkong District. Data analysis in this study uses SWOT analysis. SWOT stands for S: Strength, W: Weakness, O: Opportunity, T: Threts (threat). This SWOT analysis is basically a strategy by taking into account the organization's internal consisting of strengths and weaknesses and external conditions consisting of opportunities and threats. Internal conditions are conditions that are controllable (can be influenced/controlled), while external conditions are more uncontrollable (cannot be influenced/controlled). Based on the results of the SWOT research, it was concluded that the strategy for improving HR performance at UPT Puskeswan Paser Belengkong is a strategy: (1) HR arrangement according to work capacity; (2) Continue education (CE) or continuing education; (3) Increase promotion to the public.

Contribution of Federal Centre for Animal Health to Rosselkhoznadzor’s international mandate delivery

The paper covers the history of the Federal Centre for Animal Health, which started 65 years ago by the foundation of the All-Union Foot and Mouth Disease Research Institute. The main research area – FMD prevention and control – was and still remains the leading one for the Centre. The current history of the Federal Centre for Animal Health development is inextricably associated with the public administration reform in agriculture in 2000s, when the Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance (Rosselkhoznadzor) spun off the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation as an independent executive authority with broad powers in the area of the veterinary and phytosanitary control and surveillance. The grounds for the re-subordination of the Federal Centre for Animal Health to the Rosselkhoznadzor, historically novel executive authority in Russia, included high international prestige of the Centre and nationally and internationally acknowledged qualification of its employees in the field of contagious animal diseases.

In-process quality control in foot-and-mouth disease vaccine production by detection of viral non-structural proteins using chemiluminescence dot blot assay

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease of cloven-footed animals. Immunization with inactivated virus vaccine is effective to control the disease. Six-monthly vaccination regimen in endemic regions has proven to be effective. To enable the differentiation of infected animals from those vaccinated, non-structural proteins (NSPs) are excluded during vaccine production. While the antibodies to structural proteins (SPs) could be observed both in vaccinated and infected animals, NSP antibodies are detectable only in natural infection. Quality control assays that detect NSPs in vaccine antigen preparations, are thus vital in the FMD vaccine manufacturing process. In this study, we designed a chemiluminescence dot blot assay to detect the 3A and 3B NSPs of FMDV. It is sensitive enough to detect up to 20 ng of the NSP, and exhibited specificity as it does not react with the viral SPs. This cost-effective assay holds promise in quality control assessment in FMD vaccine manufacturing.

Seroprevalence, Serotyping, and Associated Risk Factors of Foot and Mouth Diseases in Bovine in Western Amhara Regional State, North Western Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of animals. The disease affects domestic cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, swine, sheep, and goats, deer, and is characterized by fever, lameness, and vesicular lesions on the tongue, feet, snout, and teats. The study aimed to determine seroprevalence of FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease), to identifay type of serotypes and to know associated risk factors. A total of 389 sera samples were collected from cattle in four districts of the north western Amhara region and subjected to a 3ABC enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay. The overall seroprevalence of FMDV was 5.66% (22/389); (95%; CI: 3.34% to 7.98%). The 22 positive samples were subjected to solid phase competitive ELISA to identify specific serotypes. The occurrence of FMD was higher in Adet (OR= 12.8), greater in the semi-intensive than extensive production systems (OR=10.4) and highly occurred in the cross breed than local breed cattle (OR=3.56). Serotypes identified in the four districts were type O, SAT2, and A. This study revealed that FMD is a prevalent and endemic disease. Thus, awareness creation to the stakeholders on the control and prevention of a disease is required. Further epidemiological investigation and vaccine trials should be conducted.

Direct RNA Sequencing of Foot-and-mouth Disease Virus Genome Using a Flongle on MinION.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe and extremely contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed domestic and wild animals, which leads to serious economic losses to the livestock industry globally. FMD is caused by the FMD virus (FMDV), a positive-strand RNA virus that belongs to the genus Aphthovirus, within the family Picornaviridae. Early detection and characterization of FMDV strains are key factors to control new outbreaks and prevent the spread of the disease. Here, we describe a direct RNA sequencing method using Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) Flongle flow cells on MinION Mk1C (or GridION) to characterize FMDV. This is a rapid, low cost, and easily deployed point of care (POC) method for a near real-time characterization of FMDV in endemic areas or outbreak investigation sites. Key features • Saves ~35 min of the original protocol time by omitting the reverse transcription step and lowers the costs of reagents and consumables. • Replaces the GridION flow cell from the original protocol with the Flongle, which saves ~90% on the flow cell cost. • Combines the NGS benchwork with a modified version of our African swine fever virus (ASFV) fast analysis pipeline to achieve FMDV characterization within minutes. Graphical overview Schematic of direct RNA sequencing of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) process, which takes ~50 min from extracted RNA to final loading, modified from the ONT SQK-RNA002 protocol (Version: DRS_9080_v2_revO_14Aug2019).

Development and evaluation of two rapid lateral flow assays for on-site detection of African swine fever virus.

African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal and highly contagious transboundary animal disease with the potential for rapid international spread. In the absence of a widely available and definitively proven vaccine, rapid and early detection is critical for ASF control. The quick and user-friendly lateral flow assay (LFA) can easily be performed by following simple instructions and is ideal for on-site use. This study describes the development and validation of two LFAs for the rapid detection of ASF virus (ASFV) in pig serum. The highly immunogenic antigens (p30 and p72) of ASFV Georgia 2007/1 (genotype II) were expressed in plants (Nicotiana benthamiana) and were used to immunize BALB/c mice to generate specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the p30 and p72 proteins. mAbs with the strongest binding ability to each protein were used to develop p30_LFA and p72_LFA for detecting the respective ASFV antigens. The assays were first evaluated using a spike-in test by adding the purified p30 or p72 protein to a serum sample from a healthy donor pig. Further validation of the tests was carried out using serum samples derived from experimentally infected domestic pigs, field domestic pigs, and feral pigs, and the results were compared with those of ASFV real-time PCR. p30_LFA and p72_LFA showed no cross-reaction with common swine viruses and delivered visual results in 15 min. When testing with serially diluted proteins in swine serum samples, analytical sensitivity reached 10 ng/test for p30_LFA and 20 ng/test for p72_LFA. Using real-time PCR as a reference, both assays demonstrated high sensitivity (84.21% for p30_LFA and 100% for p72_LFA) with experimentally ASFV-infected pig sera. Specificity was 100% for both LFAs using a panel of PBS-inoculated domestic pig sera. Excellent specificity was also shown for field domestic pig sera (100% for p30_LFA and 93% for p72_LFA) and feral pig sera (100% for both LFAs). The results obtained in this study suggest that p30_LFA and p72_LFA hold promise as rapid, sensitive, user-friendly, and field-deployable tools for ASF control, particularly in settings with limited laboratory resources.

Występowanie i zwalczanie wysoce zjadliwej grypy ptaków w krajach Unii Europejskiej, w tym w Polsce w sezonie 2020/2021

Highly pathogenic avian influenza is one of the most contagious and dangerous infectious animal diseases of the twenty first century. Its recurring outbreaks in recent years have been increasing in scope and have resulted in previously unrecorded losses in poultry production, related to both its high mortality rate and the need to kill poultry in outbreaks, as well as economic losses related to trade restrictions imposed on affected countries and regions. An increase in the average duration of the so-called „flu season” was also observed. This is related to the shift in the phenological calendar observed in nature, which was created based on the analysis of climatic factors, weather and the impact on animal behavior. Currently, in the countries of the European Union, the direct legal basis for the control of highly pathogenic avian influenza in the EU, is provided by the provisions of Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council (EU) (Animal Health Law, AHL), while the detailed manner and mode of control of this disease is defined in the Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020/687 of December 17, 2019.

Use of toxicants baiting for reduction of wild boar populations in African swine fever disease management – implications for biodiversity and legislation

Wild animals appear to be a key factor in the occurrence, transmission and prevalence of a myriad of contagious animal diseases, being natural reservoirs, vectors or both. This role is played by wild boars in the African swine fever (ASF) transmission to domestic pigs. ASF entered the European Union in 2014 and since then lots of measures have been implemented to bring the disease under control. Bulgaria also tried to introduce new measures for reduction of wild boar populations, regarding ASF through legislative amendments. Proposals in the Bulgarian Law on hunting and game protection from 2020 tried to make legitimate wild boar culling with some unselective approaches like the use of baits with chemical poisonous or intoxicating substances. This provoked the authors to study the experience of other countries on particular toxicants used for baiting for control of wild boar populations. We investigated the available scientific literature on the selective character of chemical baiting and the effect on non-target species. Moreover, the participation of different stakeholders in the pro­cess of development and implementation of the mentioned measures was discussed. Thus, proposals were made for better preparatory, scientific and efficiency investigation at the preliminary stage of animal disease control measures development.

Estimation of foot-and-mouth disease virus sero-prevalence rates using novel computational approach for the susceptible bovine population in India during the period 2008–2021

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. In India, a vaccination-based official FMD control programme was started, which got expanded progressively to cover entire country in 2019. The serological tests are used to determine non-structural protein based sero-prevalence rates for properly implementing and assessing the control programme. Since 2008, reporting of the FMD sero-surveillance was limited to the serum sample-based serological test results without going for population-level estimation due to lack of proper statistical methodology. Thus, we present a computational approach for estimating the sero-prevalence rates at the state and national levels. Based on the reported approach, a web-application (https://nifmd-bbf.icar.gov.in/FMDSeroSurv) and an R software package (https://github.com/sam-dfmd/FMDSeroSurv) have been developed. The presented computational techniques are applied to the FMD sero-surveillance data during 2008–2021 to get the status of virus circulation in India under a strict vaccination policy. Furthermore, through various structural equation models, we attempt to establish a link between India’s estimated sero-prevalence rate and field FMD outbreaks. Our results indicate that the current sero-prevalence rates are significantly associated with previous field outbreaks up to 2 years. Besides, we observe downward trends in sero-prevalence and outbreaks over the years, specifically after 2013, which indicate the effectiveness of various measures implemented under the FMD control programme. The findings of the study may help researchers and policymakers to track virus infection and identification of potential disease-free zones through vaccination.

Current detection methods of African swine fever virus.

African swine fever (ASF), caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV), is a highly contagious and notifiable animal disease in domestic pigs and wild boars, as designated by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). The effective diagnosis of ASF holds great importance in promptly controlling its spread due to its increasing prevalence and the continuous emergence of variant strains. This paper offers a comprehensive review of the most common and up-to-date methods established for various genes/proteins associated with ASFV. The discussed methods primarily focus on the detection of viral genomes or particles, as well as the detection of ASFV associated antibodies. It is anticipated that this paper will serve as a reference for choosing appropriate diagnostic methods in diverse application scenarios, while also provide direction for the development of innovative technologies in the future.

Socialization Of The Using Of Disinfectants In Cattle As An Effort To Prevent The Transmission Of Foot And Mouth Diseases (FMD) In Sumber Rejeki, Dau, Malang

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a contagious animal disease that attacks livestock. The Sumber Rejeki Dairy Cattle Group in Gading Kulon Village, Malang Regency has 356 cows of the Friesian Holstein breed. Several cows in Sumber Rejeki has been infected with the PMK virus. This disease causes a decrease in milk production in infected cows, causing economic losses to KSP breeders. Source of fortune. One of the efforts to prevent its spread is to disinfect the cage. Disinfection of cages is effective enough to kill the FMD virus because the FMD virus does not have an outer membrane and is easily destroyed at pH <5 and >7. Community knowledge regarding disinfection is still low, so socialization is carried out regarding the provision of disinfectants in cages. After the socialization, there was an increase in the knowledge of the farmers by 41.5% through the pretest and posttest which were given before and after the socialization.

A Cell-Adapted Live-Attenuated Vaccine Candidate Protects Pigs against the Homologous Strain VNUA-ASFV-05L1, a Representative Strain of the Contemporary Pandemic African Swine Fever Virus.

African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal and highly contagious transboundary animal disease with the potential for rapid international spread. Currently, there is no ASF vaccine commercially available. All infected animals must be isolated and culled immediately upon the confirmation of the presence of the virus. Studies leading to the rational development of protective ASF vaccines are urgently needed. Here, we generated a safe and efficacious live-attenuated vaccine (LAV) VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 by serially passaging a field isolate (VNUA-ASFV-05L1, genotype II) in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs, 65 passages) and an immortalized porcine alveolar macrophage cell line (3D4/21, 55 passages). VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 can efficiently replicate in both PAMs and 3D4/21 cells. It provides 100% protection, even with the low dose of 102 HAD50, to the vaccinated pigs against the challenge of contemporary pandemic ASFV field isolate. Pigs vaccinated with this LAV in a dose range of 102 to 105 HAD50 remained clinically healthy during both the 28-day observation period of immunization and the 28-day observation period of challenge. VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 was eliminated from blood by 28 days post-inoculation (DPI), and from feces or oral fluids by 17 DPI. Although the vaccine strain in serum remained a safe and attenuated phenotype after five passages in swine, a reversion-to-virulence study using blood or tissue homogenates at peak viremia will be conducted in the future. ASFV-specific IgG antibodies and significant cellular immunity were detected in vaccinated pigs before the ASFV challenge. These results indicate that the VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 strain is a safe and efficacious LAV against the genotype II ASFV strain responsible for current ASF outbreaks in Asia.

Development of a primary cell model derived from porcine dorsal soft palate for foot-and-mouth disease virus research and diagnosis.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals that has a significant socio-economic impact. One concern associated with this disease is the ability of its etiological agent, the FMD virus (FMDV), to persist in its hosts through underlying mechanisms that remain to be elucidated. While persistence has been described in cattle and small ruminants, it is unlikely to occur in pigs. One of the factors limiting the progress in understanding FMDV persistence and, in particular, differential persistence is the lack of suitable in vitro models. A primary bovine cell model derived from the dorsal soft palate, which is the primary site of replication and persistence of FMDV in cattle, has been developed, and it seemed relevant to develop a similar porcine model. Cells from two sites of FMDV replication in pigs, namely, the dorsal soft palate and the oropharyngeal tonsils, were isolated and cultured. The epithelial character of the cells from the dorsal soft palate was then assessed by immunofluorescence. The FMDV-sensitivity of these cells was assessed after monolayer infection with FMDV O/FRA/1/2001 Clone 2.2. These cells were also grown in multilayers at the air-liquid interface to mimic a stratified epithelium susceptible to FMDV infection. Consistent with what has been shown in vivo in pigs, our study showed no evidence of persistence of FMDV in either the monolayer or multilayer model, with no infectious virus detected 28 days after infection. The development of such a model opens up new possibilities for the study and diagnosis of FMDV in porcine cells.

Diagnostic Overview of Foot-And-Mouth Disease Viruse (FMDV)

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the highly contagious diseases of domestic animals. Sensitive, specific, and quick detection of FMD virus antigens and antibodies is an essential corner stone diagnostic tool at each tier of control strategy. Continued development of molecular and genetic technologies combined with novel analytical techniques will benefit many areas of FMD research and understanding. Genome sequencing provides excellent insight into the evolutionary and epidemiological dynamics of such viruses. The advent of next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies enables evolutionary studies of the entire viral swarm. Sequencing technologies have advanced uses of viral genomic data; which helps to understand the global distribution and Trans-boundary movements of Foot-and-mouth virus disease. Also sequencing information can be used to understand antigenic change within virus strains; therefore, the aim of this review is to assess various diagnostic techniques including conventional and advanced techniques both from agent and host response sides. Among the agent side virus isolation, RT-PCR, antigen ELISA and immune-chromatography strips are commonly used diagnostic tests. Whereas from the host side: infrared thermo gram, antibody ELISA and Virus neutralization are some mentions. Owing to current technological advancement: DNA sequencing and microarray, expressing a luciferase reporter and quantitative proteomics were reviewed. Therefore, potential confirmatory diagnostic test should be in combination with each other.