Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography Research Articles

Three-dimensional flow structures in turbulent Rayleigh–Bénard convection at low Prandtl number Pr = 0.03

In this paper we report on an experimental study focusing on the manifestation and dynamics of the large-scale circulation (LSC) in turbulent liquid metal convection. The experiments are performed inside a cylinder of aspect ratio $\varGamma = 0.5$ filled with the ternary alloy GaInSn, which has a Prandtl number of $Pr = 0.03$ . The large-scale flow structures are classified and characterized at Rayleigh numbers of ${Ra} = 9.33 \times 10^6, 5.31 \times 10^7$ and $6.02 \times 10^8$ by means of the contactless inductive flow tomography which enables the full reconstruction of the three-dimensional (3-D) flow structures in the entire convection cell. This is complemented with the multi-thermal-probe method for capturing the azimuthal temperature variation induced by the LSC at the sidewall. We use proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) to identify the dominating modes of the turbulent convection. The analysis reveals that a single-roll structure of the LSC alternates in short succession with double-roll structures or a three-roll structure. This is accompanied by dramatic fluctuations of the Reynolds number, whose instantaneous values can deviate by more than 50 % from the time-average value. No coherent oscillations are observed, whereas a correlation analysis indicates a residual contribution of the torsion and sloshing modes. Results of the POD analysis suggest a stabilization of the single-roll LSC with increasing $Ra$ at the expense of flow structures with multiple rolls. Moreover, the relative lifetime of all identified flow states, measured in units of free-fall times, increases with rising $Ra$ .

Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography for Real-Time Control of Electromagnetic Actuators in Metal Casting.

Flow control of liquid metals based on the actual flow condition is important in many metallurgical applications. For instance, the liquid steel flow in the mould of a continuous caster strongly influences the product quality. The flow can be modified by an electromagnetic brake (EMBr). However, due to the lack of appropriate flow measurement techniques, the control of those actuators is usually not based on the actual flow condition. This article describes the recent developments of the Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) towards a real-time monitoring system, which can be used as an input to the control loop for an EMBr. CIFT relies on measuring the flow-induced perturbation of an applied magnetic field and the solution of an underlying linear inverse problem. In order to implement the CIFT reconstructions in combination with EMBr, two issues have to be solved: (i) compensation of the effects of the change in EMBr strength on the CIFT measurement system and (ii) a real-time solution of the inverse problem. We present solutions of both problems for a model of a continuous caster with a ruler-type EMBr. The EMBr introduces offsets of the measured magnetic field that are several orders of magnitude larger than the very flow-induced perturbations. The offset stems from the ferromagnetic hysteresis exhibited by the ferrous parts of the EMBr in the proximity of the measurement coils. Compensation of the offset was successfully achieved by implementing a numerical model of hysteresis to predict the offset. Real-time reconstruction was achieved by precalculating the computationally heavy matrix inverses for a predefined set of regularization parameters and choosing the optimal one in every measurement frame. Finally, we show that this approach does not hinder the reconstruction quality.

Real time flow control during continuous casting with Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography

Lack of appropriate flow measurement techniques for liquid steel during continuous casting limits the application of control strategies that could improve the quality of the end product. Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a promising measurement technique that can provide information about the flow structure in the mould to a real time controller. On this basis, electromagnetic actuators can be used to react on undesired flow conditions in the mould. However, because of their nature, these actuators pose a significant challenge for inductive measurement methods. In this work we describe the influence of an electromagnetic brake on CIFT in a laboratory environment. We also show how this influence can be fully compensated, which facilitates the viability of CIFT as a key ingredient of real time control of continuous casting. Figs 5, Refs 15.

Flow reconstruction in a Rayleigh-Bénard convection cell with an aspect ratio 0.5 by contactless inductive flow tomography

The time dependent behaviour of the large-scale circulation in a Rayleigh-Bénard convection cell exhibits a rich set of different three-dimensional flow features like rotations or torsional modes. In this paper, the applicability of contactless inductive flow tomography to visualise these flow features in a cylindrical cell filled with GaInSn is investigated numerically. The simulated flow in the cylinder with a diameter of 320 mm and a height of 640 mm serves as a basis to investigate the quality of the reconstructed velocity field by contactless inductive flow tomography. Figs 5, Refs 9.

Challenges in contactless inductive flow tomography for Rayleigh--Bénard convection cells

Contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) can reconstruct the complex 3-dimensional flow structure of the large-scale circulation in liquid metal filled Rayleigh-Bénard (RB) convection cells. The method relies on the precise measurement of weak magnetic fields induced by currents in the conducting liquid arising from the fluid motion in combination with primary excitation fields. The velocity distribution is reconstructed from the magnetic field measurements by solving a linear inverse problem using the Tikhonov regularization and L-curve method. A number of technical challenges have to be overcome to reach the desired accuracy of the measurement signals. In this paper we will describe our design of a new CIFT set-up for a large RB vessel with a diameter of 320 mm and a height of 640 mm. We outline the major factors perturbing the measurement signal of several tens of nanoteslas and describe solutions to decrease mechanical drifts by thermal expansion to a sub-critical level to enable CIFT measurements for high-Rayleigh number flows. Figs 5, Refs 16.

Laboratory Investigation of Tomography-Controlled Continuous Steel Casting.

More than 96% of steel in the world is produced via the method of continuous casting. The flow condition in the mould, where the initial solidification occurs, has a significant impact on the quality of steel products. It is important to have timely, and perhaps automated, control of the flow during casting. This work presents a new concept of using contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) as a sensor for a novel controller, which alters the strength of an electromagnetic brake (EMBr) of ruler type based on the reconstructed flow structure in the mould. The method was developed for the small-scale Liquid Metal Model for Continuous Casting (mini-LIMMCAST) facility available at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. As an example of an undesired flow condition, clogging of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) was modelled by partly closing one of the side ports of the SEN; in combination with an active EMBr, the jet penetrates deeper into the mould than when the EMBr is switched off. Corresponding flow patterns are detected by extracting the impingement position of the jets at the narrow faces of the mould from the CIFT reconstruction. The controller is designed to detect to undesired flow condition and switch off the EMBr. The temporal resolution of CIFT is 0.5 s.

Contactless inductive flow tomography for a Rayleigh-Bénard setup with aspect ratio 0.5

Contactless inductive flow tomography for a Rayleigh-Bénard setup with aspect ratio 0.5

Analysis, design and optimization of compact ultra-high sensitivity coreless induction coil sensors

For contactless inductive flow tomography we require a compact magnetic field measurement system with a dynamic range of 5 orders of magnitude in order to detect the amplitude and the phase of an alternating magnetic field of 1 mT strength with a precision better than 5 nT and a phase error no larger than 10−2 deg. In some applications a static magnetic field of about 300 mT is also present, resulting in a total dynamic range of 7 orders of magnitude.We present theoretical and experimental analyses of absolute and first order gradiometric induction coil sensors with sensitivities larger than 500 V/T · Hz) and diameters of 28 mm. From their equivalent circuits, we derive the associated complex-valued transfer functions and fit these to calibration measurements, thereby determining the value of the equivalent circuit components. This allows us to compensate their non-linear frequency-dependent amplitude and phase behaviour. Furthermore, we demonstrate the optimization of coils based on Brooks’ design of equal squares in the adaptation by Murgatroyd, which maximizes the inductance (and thereby most likely the sensitivity) of the coils. Finally, we design a new coil with a diameter of 74 mm and a sensitivity of 577 V/(T · Hz) with an analytically predicted equivalent magnetic field noise of around in the 1 Hz frequency range, which is then confirmed by measurements on the manufactured prototype.

Flow monitoring for continuous steel casting using Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT)

The control of the liquid steel flow in the mould of a continuous caster based on real time flow measurements is a challenging task due to the lack of appropriate measurement techniques. The opaqueness, the high temperature of 1500°C and the chemical aggressiveness of the melt require non-optical contactless methods. In order to reconstruct the complex flow structure in the mould, the Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a promising candidate, since it allows the visualization of the flow structure in the melt by applying a magnetic field to the melt, measuring the flow induced perturbation of that field and solving subsequently a linear inverse problem. The combination of this new measurement technique with typical electromagnetic actuators like electromagnetic brakes used in continuous casting pose a challenge to the CIFT measurement system, because the flow induced magnetic field is in the range of 100 nT and has to be measured robustly on the background of the static magnetic field with the amplitude of 300 mT generated by the brake. In this work we will show recent developments regarding this topic for a small model of a continuous caster in the lab. Furthermore, we will present a new method on how the complex linear inverse problem can be solved in real time providing a time resolution of about 1 Hz.

Optimal sensor arrangement for Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography in the case of Rayleigh–Bénard convection

The Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography is a procedure that enables the reconstruction of the global flow structure of an electrically conducting fluid by measuring the flow induced magnetic field outside the melt and subsequently solving the associated linear inverse problem. The accuracy of the reconstruction depends on the number and the distribution of the sensors around the vessel. The aim of this investigation is to find a sensor configuration for the reconstruction of a temperature driven flow of a liquid metal in a cylindrical vessel that employs as few sensors as possible without any significant loss of accuracy.

Visualisation of the large scale circulation in Rayleigh-Bénard convection using contactless inductive flow tomography

Rayleigh-Bénard (RB) convection plays an important role in geo- and astrophysics as well as in many metallurgical applications. At sufficiently high values of the Rayleigh number, a large scale circulation (LSC) is formed whose dynamics had turned out to be surprisingly rich. In this paper, the applicability of the contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) for the detection of the torsional mode of the LSC is investigated. CIFT enables the three-dimensional reconstruction of flow structures in liquid metals by applying one or more magnetic fields and measuring the flow induced perturbations of those fields outside the melt. Additionally, preliminary measurements of the flow induced magnetic field with a similar sensor arrangement will be presented.

Real-time control of the mould flow in a model of continuous casting in frame of the TOMOCON project

In continuous casting, the flow structure of the liquid steel in the mould and the two-phase distribution in the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) are crucial for the quality of the produced steel. In order to effectively control the flow in the mould by electromagnetic brakes (EMBrs) and the injection of gas into the SEN, even a rough knowledge of the flow structure would be very helpful. In the framework of the TOMOCON project, the contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) and the mutual inductance tomography (MIT) will be integrated into a control loop for slab casters. This control loop will be developed and implemented at the Mini-LIMMCAST facility, which is available at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf. In this paper a short overview of this project will be given.

Experimental modelling of continuous casting of steel in slab moulds using low melting liquid metals

Electromagnetic actuators are widely used in industry for contactless control of the steel flow in the continuous casting process. However, a real control of the flow structure by those actuators is a challenging task due to the lack of flow monitoring devices. Even a satisfying non real-time characterisation of the melt flow from plant measurements is missing. Beside numerical simulations, only a very few spatially and temporally limited measurements in liquid steel are available to investigate the actual action of the magnetic fields on the fluid.Therefore, model experiments with low melting point liquid metals are an important tool to investigate the flow structure and related transport processes in the mould of a continuous caster. Their advantage is the availability of a variety of measurement techniques for quantitative flow measurements. The application of the Ultrasonic-Doppler-Velocimetry (UDV) and the Contactless-Inductive-Flow-Tomography (CIFT) allows for a detailed characterization of the mould flow with a reasonable spatial and temporal resolution.In recent experiments at HZDR, the systematic study on the influence of an electromagnetic brake on the mould flow in a slab caster was continued. The measurements were carried out using a 1:2 scaled model operated with SnBi and a 1:8 scaled model operated with GaInSn, respectively. The melt surface was partly measured by a laser scanner system. In particular, the immersion depth of the submergence entry nozzle (SEN) was varied during the experiments. It became obvious that changes in the mould flow had a strong influence on the free surface of the melt, where strong perturbations can significantly impair the surface quality of the final steel strands. Moreover, effects from the “artificial” clogging of one SEN-port or the injection of Argon gas at the stopper rod were investigated.

Singularity consideration in the integral equations for contactless inductive flow tomography

PurposeThe contactless inductive flow tomography is a procedure that enables the reconstruction of the global three-dimensional flow structure of an electrically conducting fluid by measuring the flow-induced magnetic flux density outside the melt and by subsequently solving the associated linear inverse problem. The purpose of this study is to improve the accuracy of the computation of the forward problem, since the forward solution primarily determines the accuracy of the inversion.Design/methodology/approachThe tomography procedure is described by a system of coupled integral equations where the integrals contain a singularity when a source point coincides with a field point. The integrals need to be evaluated to a high degree of precision to establish an accurate foundation for the inversion. The contribution of a singular point to the value of the surface and volume integrals in the system is determined by analysing the behaviour of the fields and integrals in the close proximity of the singularity.FindingsA significant improvement of the accuracy is achieved by applying higher order elements and by attributing special attention to the singularities inherent in the integral equations.Originality/valueThe contribution of a singular point to the value of the surface integrals in the system is dependent upon the geometry of the boundary at the singular point. The computation of the integrals is described in detail and the improper surface and volume integrals are shown to exist. The treatment of the singularities represents a novelty in the contactless inductive flow tomography and is the focal point of this investigation.

Visualization of the global flow structure in a modified Rayleigh-Bénard setup using contactless inductive flow tomography

Rayleigh-Bénard convection is not only a classical problem in fluid dynamics but plays also an important role in many metallurgical and crystal growth applications. The measurement of the flow field and of the dynamics of the emerging large-scale circulation in liquid metals is a challenging task due to the opaqueness and the high temperature of the melts. Contactless inductive flow tomography is a technique to visualize the mean three-dimensional flow structure in liquid metals by measuring the flow induced magnetic field perturbations under the influence of one or several applied magnetic fields. In this paper, we present the first measurements of the flow induced magnetic field in a Rayleigh-Bénard setup, which are also used to investigate the dynamics of the large-scale circulation. Additionally, we investigate numerically the quality of the reconstruction of the three-dimensional flow field for different sensor configurations.

Measurement techniques for liquid metals

The measurement of flow properties of liquid metals, such as flow rate, flow structure and gas distribution, is a challenging task due to the opaqueness, the high temperatures (e. g. 1500 °C for liquid steel or liquid silicon) and the corrosiveness of those fluids. In this paper, a short review about the recent developments of measurement techniques in the framework of the Helmholtz Alliance Liquid Metal Technologies (LIMTECH) is presented. It focuses on the development of contactless inductive measurement techniques exploiting the high electrical conductivity of those melts. These measurement techniques include the contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT), which is able to reconstruct the mean three-dimensional velocity structure in liquid melts, local Lorentz force velocimetry (local LFV), which enables the local assessment of flows close to the wall, and inductive methods for bubble detection, which are based on mutual inductance tomography (MIT). Additionally, a short overview of contactless inductive flow rate measurement techniques is given. Furthermore, an ultrasound technique called ultrasound transit-time technique (UTTT) will be presented which enables the measurement of position and size of bubbles in large vessels.

Contactless inductive flow tomography: basic principles and first applications in the experimental modelling of continuous casting

Contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) aims at reconstructing the flow structure of a liquid metal from the magnetic fields measured at various positions outside the fluid body which are induced by the flow under the influence of one or multiple applied magnetic fields. We recap the basic mathematical principles of CIFT and the results of an experiment in which the propeller-driven three-dimensional flow in a cylindrical had been reconstructed. We also summarize the recent activities to utilize CIFT in various problems connected with the experimental simulation of the continuous casting process. These include flow reconstructions in single-phase and two-phase flow problems in the Mini-LIMMCAST model of slab-casting, studies of the specific effects of an electromagnetic stirrer attached to the Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN), as well as first successful applications of CIFT on the background of a strong electromagnetic brake field. We conclude by discussing some remaining obstacles for the deployment of CIFT in a real caster.

A gradiometric version of contactless inductive flow tomography: theory and first applications.

The contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) is a measurement technique that allows reconstructing the flow of electrically conducting fluids by measuring the flow-induced perturbations of one or various applied magnetic fields and solving the underlying inverse problem. One of the most promising application fields of CIFT is the continuous casting of steel, for which the online monitoring of the flow in the mould would be highly desirable. In previous experiments at a small-scale model of continuous casting, CIFT has been applied to various industrially relevant problems, including the sudden changes of flow structures in case of argon injection and the influence of a magnetic stirrer at the submerged entry nozzle. The application of CIFT in the presence of electromagnetic brakes, which are widely used to stabilize the flow in the mould, has turned out to be more challenging due to the extreme dynamic range between the strong applied brake field and the weak flow-induced perturbations of the measuring field. In this paper, we present a gradiometric version of CIFT, relying on gradiometric field measurements, that is capable to overcome those problems and which seems, therefore, a promising candidate for applying CIFT in the steel casting industry. This article is part of the themed issue 'Supersensing through industrial process tomography'.

Flow Visualization by Means of Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography in the Presence of a Magnetic Brake

AbstractIn continuous casting DC magnetic fields perpendicular to the wide faces of the mold are used to control the flow in the mold. Especially in this case, even a rough knowledge of the flow structure in the mold would be highly desirable. The contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) allows to reconstruct the dominating two-dimensional flow structure in a slab casting mold by applying one external magnetic field and by measuring the flow-induced magnetic fields outside the mold. For a physical model of a mold with a cross section of 140 mm×35 mm we present preliminary measurements of the flow field in the mold in the presence of a magnetic brake. In addition, we show first reconstructions of the flow field in a mold with the cross section of 400 mm×100 mm demonstrating the upward scalability of CIFT.

Numerical and experimental investigation of the contactless inductive flow tomography in the presence of strong static magnetic fields

Numerical and experimental investigation of the contactless inductive flow tomography in the presence of strong static magnetic fields