Contact Tracing Apps Research Articles

The effect of the pandemic on European narratives on smart cities and surveillance.

This article presents an analysis of European smart city narratives and how they evolved under the pressure of the COVID-19 pandemic. We start with Joss et al.'s observation that the smart-city discourse is presently in flux, engaged in intensive boundary-work and struggling to gain wider support. We approach this process from the critical perspective of surveillance capitalism, as proposed by Zuboff, to highlight the growing privacy concerns related to technological development. Our results are based on analysing 184 articles regarding smart-city solutions, published on social media by five European journals between 2017 and 2021. We adopted both human and machine coding processes for qualitative and quantitative analysis of our data. As a result, we identified the main actors and four dominant narratives: regulation of artificial intelligence and facial recognition, technological fight with the climate emergency, contact tracing apps and the potential of 5G technology to boost the digitalisation processes. Our analysis shows the growing number of positive narratives underlining the importance of technology in fighting the pandemic and mitigating the climate emergency, but the latter is often mentioned in a tokenistic fashion. Right to privacy considerations are central for two out of four discovered topics. We found that the main rationale for the development of surveillance technologies relates to the competitiveness of the EU in the global technological rivalry, while ambitions like increasing societal well-being or safeguarding the transparency of new policies are nearly non-existent.

Studying Users’ Perceptions of COVID-19 Mobile Applications in Saudi Arabia

In Saudi Arabia, several mitigating measures were implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, including the creation of COVID-19 mobile applications (apps) for public use. The Saudi government has made the use of these apps mandatory for its citizens and residents. However, it is essential to explore the perception that common users have regarding using these apps in terms of usability and user experience. Therefore, this paper assesses user experience in terms of effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction with the usability of the Saudi COVID-19 apps. The reviews of five mobile apps launched by the Saudi Data and AI Authority (SDAIA) and the Ministry of Health in the Apple Store were extracted using an online tool and analyzed using the content analysis method. The number of collected reviews was 29 for Sehha, 406 for Sehhaty, 442 for Mawid, 107 for Tabaud, and 1338 for Tawakkalna. The results of the study showed that Mawid (82%) and Tabaud (81%) had the highest usability of all the apps studied. Sehha (−138%) and Sehhaty (−107%) received the lowest usability scores, followed by Tawakkalna (−22%). Based on these results, we identified several usability issues with each app. Some of the main problems reported by users were increased battery drain, lack of privacy, and technical issues.

The use of COVID-19 contact tracing app data as evidence of a crime

This commentary draws attention to the introduction of data collected by COVID-19 tracing apps as evidence in criminal proceedings and the novel considerations this evidence presents for criminal justice agents and digital forensics professionals.

On the voluntariness of public health apps: a European case study on digital contact tracing

ABSTRACT As evidenced during the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a growing reliance on smartphone apps such as digital contact tracing apps and vaccination passports to respond to and mitigate public health threats. In light of the European Commission's guidance, Member States typically offer such apps on a voluntary, ‘opt-in’ basis. In this paper, we question the extent to which the individual choice to use these apps – and similar future technologies – is indeed a voluntary one. By explicating ethical and legal considerations governing the choice situations surrounding the use of smartphone apps, specifically those related to the negative consequences that declining the use of these apps may have (e.g. loss of opportunities, social exclusion, stigma), we argue that the projected downsides of refusal may in effect limit the liberty to decline for certain subpopulations. To mitigate these concerns, we recommend three categories of approaches that may be employed by governments to safeguard voluntariness.

Digital doubters in different political and cultural contexts: Comparing citizen attitudes across three major digital technologies

Abstract Governments all over the world are rapidly embracing digital technologies for information collection, governance, and social control. Recent studies suggest citizens may accept or even support digital surveillance. By using an online survey dataset on public opinion about facial recognition technology, contact tracing apps, and the social credit system in China, Germany, the US, and the UK, this article shows that these studies have overlooked a small yet significant group of digital technology doubters. Our results show that while up to 10% of Chinese citizens belong to the group of “digital doubters,” this group is the largest in Germany with 30% of citizens. The US and the UK are in the middle with approximately 20%. While citizens who belong to this group of digital doubters worry about privacy and surveillance issues, their attitudes can also be explained by them not being convinced of the benefits of digital technologies, including improved efficiency, security, or convenience. We find that the more citizens lack trust in their government, the more likely they are to belong to the group of digital doubters. Our findings demonstrate that in both democratic and authoritarian states, there are citizens opposing the adoption of certain digital technologies. This underscores the importance of initiating societal debate to determine the appropriate regulations that align with these societal preferences.

Privacy Governance in Contact Tracing Apps: A Comparative International Study

Privacy Governance in Contact Tracing Apps: A Comparative International Study

Attitudes Towards COVID-19 Contact Tracing Apps: A Cross-National Survey

To help prevent the spread of COVID-19, countries around the world have implemented a range of measures and virus containment strategies, including digital contact-tracing (DCT) in the form of smartphone apps. While early studies showed a high level of acceptability of such technologies, the adoption rates varied greatly between countries after contact-tracing apps became available to download. This cross-national user survey ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${n}=871$ </tex-math></inline-formula> ) aims to explore public attitudes and factors that affect user acceptability and adoption of contact-tracing apps in the USA, UK, and the Republic of Ireland, which employ similar underlying technology, but have uneven adoption rates. The results indicate interactions between installation decisions and public trust in actors and institutions communicating COVID-related information, and releasing such technologies. Beyond the immediate case of contact tracing, our findings hold implications for the deployment and communicative framing of technology for public health and the public good, and inform the design of crisis response public health information systems.

Behavioral intention &amp; use behavior of citizens in Iligan city towards the staysafe.ph application during the covid 19 pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic has encouraged the use of digital solutions such as contact tracing applications to manage the spread of the virus infection. The use of Staysafe.ph app in particular is central to the management of public health emergencies in the country, however, it is important to understand the needs and tolerances of different users to address factors that may hinder the adoption of such strategy. Prior research in contact-tracing apps focuses solely on measuring people’s intentions to use the app. However, the effectiveness of contact-tracing apps is dependent on a significant percentage of the population installing and using the app. Hence, to investigate the intention to use and usage behavior of citizens towards the Staysafe.ph application during the pandemic, the UTAUT model is used, expanding it with three constructs: privacy concern and self-efficacy as direct determinants for behavioral intention; and fear of Covid-19 as a moderator. A survey experiment (N = 400) in Iligan City is used, in which a web-based version of the survey questionnaire was distributed through social networks. The measurement and structure model were appraised using structural equation modelling (SEM). The result shows that effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, and self-efficacy played an important role in behavioral intention and usage of the app, except for performance expectancy and privacy concerns. Moreover, respondents showing behavioral intention to use the application are more likely to use the app. The multiple regression analysis showed that fear of Covid-19 and age as moderating factors do not have a significant impact on behavioral intention and use behavior. These findings were interpreted in the light of current conceptualizations in the area of the study and their implications for the future were pointed out. You should leave 8 mm of space above the abstract and 10 mm after the abstract. The heading Abstract should be typed in bold 9-point Arial. The body of the abstract should be typed in normal 9-point Times in a single paragraph, immediately following the heading. The text should be set to 1 line spacing. The abstract should be centred across the page, indented 17 mm from the left and right page margins and justified. It should not normally exceed 200 words.

Smartphone-Based COVID-19 Contact Tracing Apps – Insights from New Zealand

Smartphone-Based COVID-19 Contact Tracing Apps – Insights from New Zealand

Exploring young adults’ unwillingness to adopt COVID-19 contact tracing apps: A mixed-method study

Exploring young adults’ unwillingness to adopt COVID-19 contact tracing apps: A mixed-method study

Smart Transformative Services to Defuse Crises?

Smart transformative services such as digital contact tracing apps are a means to offer transformative and economic value by selfmonitoring contacts and improving the well-being of users, while also reducing concerns when using services during pandemics such as COVID-19. In this study, we identify significant factors as well as communication and promotion strategies to encourage digital contact tracing app nonusers to use such apps in order to benefit from their value-creating potential. This research contributes to transformative service literature by identifying digital contact tracing apps as a means to regain confidence in using services during a pandemic, thereby offering transformative and economic value. By integrating two trust dimensions as meaningful mediators, this research sheds light on the conditions under which social influence and Internet privacy concerns influence nonusers’ usage intention. Moreover, the results not only identify significant factors influencing intended app usage but also reveal strategies for increasing actual app usage.

The determinants of continuance intention to use pandemic contact tracing apps: the case of COVID-19

The determinants of continuance intention to use pandemic contact tracing apps: the case of COVID-19

The determinants of continuance intention to use pandemic contact tracing apps: the case of COVID-19

The determinants of continuance intention to use pandemic contact tracing apps: the case of COVID-19

Limits and Lessons of COVID-19 Apps

Limits and Lessons of COVID-19 Apps

Country- and app-level factors affecting the adoption and evaluation of COVID-19 mobile apps

BackgroundCountries across the globe have released many COVID-19 mobile apps. However, there is a lack of systematic empirical investigation into the factors affecting the adoption and evaluation of COVID-related apps. This study explores what factors at the country level and the app levels would influence the adoption and evaluation of COVID-19 apps.MethodsWe collected data on 267 COVID-19 apps in App Store and Google Play. The number of installs, ratings, reviews and rating scores were used as indicators of adoption and evaluation. Country-level predictors include the number of infected cases and the political system (i.e., democratic vs. non-democratic). App-level predictors include developer (i.e., government vs. non-government) and functions. Four app functions were coded for analysis: providing health information, contact tracing, home monitoring, and consultation. Negative binomial regression and OLS (Ordinary Least Square) regression were used to analyze the data.ResultsOur analyses show that apps developed by countries with more infected cases (B = 0.079, CI (Confidence Interval) = 0.000, 0.158; P = .049) and by non-governmental institutions (B=-0.369, CI=-0.653, -0.083; P = .01) received more positive rating scores. Apps with home monitoring function received lower rating scores (B=-0.550, CI=-0.971, -0.129; P = .01). Regarding adoption, apps developed by governments were more likely to be installed (IRR (Incident Rate Ratio) = 8.156, CI = 3.389, 19.626; P < .001), to be rated (IRR = 26.036, CI = 7.331, 92.468; P < .001), and to receive user comments (IRR = 12.080, CI = 3.954, 37.568; p < .001). Apps with functions of contact tracing or consultation were more likely to be installed (IRR = 4.533, CI = 2.072, 9.918; p < .001; IRR = 4.885, CI = 1.970, 12.111; p < .001), to be rated (IRR = 11.634, CI = 3.486, 38.827; p < .001; IRR = 17.194, CI = 5.309, 55.680; p < .001), and to receive user comments (IRR = 5.688, CI = 2.052, 5.770; p < .001; IRR = 16.718, CI = 5.363, 52.113; p < .001). Apps with home monitoring functions were less likely to be rated (IRR = 0.206, CI = 0.047, 0.896; P = .04) but more likely to receive user comments (IRR = 3.874, CI = 1.044, 14.349; P = .04). Further analysis shows that apps developed in democratic countries (OR (Odd Ratio) = 3.650, CI = 1.238, 10.758; P = .02) or by governments (OR = 7.987, CI = 4.106, 15.534, P < .001) were more likely to include the function of contact tracing.ConclusionThis study systematically investigates factors affecting the adoption and evaluation of COVID-19 apps. Evidence shows that government-developed apps and the inclusion of contact tracing and consultation app functions strongly predict app adoption.

Sovereignty in the Digital and Contact Tracing Apps

Recently, the concept of sovereignty in the digital has attracted much attention. Several publications dealing with this concept assume that it can best be described as a network of different, overlapping exercises of power. Nevertheless, there is a need for further research on how exactly sovereignty in the digital can be understood. In order to contribute to a better understanding of this concept, I illustrate its complex structure using contact tracing apps as a paradigmatic example. I conduct a narrative review to show what sovereignty looks like in the context of these apps. In the context of digital contact tracing apps, sovereignty is best understood as a complex network of three actors—nations, (big tech) companies, and individuals—that exercise various forms of power against or on behalf of each other to claim sovereignty for themselves and to either weaken or strengthen the sovereignty claims of other actors. Since large parts of the results can be generalized from the particular context of contact tracing apps, they contribute to a better overall understanding of the concept of sovereignty in digital. This might, in turn, be helpful for discussions about this technology as well as about the regulation and governance of the digital in general.

Impact of Privacy Messaging on COVID-19 Exposure Notification App Downloads: Evidence From a Randomized Experiment

Digital contact-tracing smartphone apps have the potential to slow the spread of disease but are not widely used. We tested whether messages describing how a COVID-19 digital contact-tracing app protects users' privacy led to increased or decreased intentions to download the app by either calming privacy concerns or increasing their saliency. Randomized controlled trial. We recruited adult smartphone owners in the U.S. (oversampled for younger adults aged 18-34 years) in November 2020 through an online panel. Survey software randomly assigned 860 participants to 1 of 2 parallel messaging conditions (n=430 privacy assured, n=430 no privacy described). 4-point scale of intention to use the app "if public health officials released a COVID Exposure Notification app in their state" that averaged likelihood to (1) download and install the app on their phone; (2) keep the app active on their phone; and (3) keep Bluetooth active on their phone (needed for the app to work). After removing incompletes, those who failed the manipulation checks, or those who had already downloaded a COVID-19 digital contact-tracing app, we analyzed 671 participants (n=330 privacy, n=341 no privacy) in 2021. There was no relationship between privacy condition and download intention (meanprivacy=2.69, meannoprivacy=2.69, b=0.01, 95% CI= -0.13, 0.15, p=0.922) but also no evidence that describing the app's security increased context-dependent privacy concerns (measured 3 ways). Instead, we found increased endorsement of data security in the privacy condition using a scale of beliefs about the app keeping privacy secure (meanprivacy=2.74, meannoprivacy=2.58, b=0.16, 95% CI=0.04, 0.28, p=0.009, small effect ω2=0.009). This study provides some evidence that people developing contact-tracing messaging campaigns do not need to worry that describing a digital contact-tracing app's privacy protections will backfire. Future mixed methods testing of messages about who has access to information-and for how long-may uncover new communication strategies to increase public trust in contact-tracing apps. This study is registered with AsPredicted#51826.

Not Only for Contact Tracing

Many countries developed and deployed contact tracing apps to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 coronavirus. Prior research explored people's intent to install these apps, which is necessary to ensure effectiveness. However, adopting contact tracing apps is not enough on its own, and much less is known about how people actually use these apps. Exploring app use can help us identify additional failures or risk points in the app life cycle. In this study, we conducted 13 semi-structured interviews with young adult users of Belgium's contact-tracing app, Coronalert. The interviews were conducted approximately a year after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings offer potential design directions for addressing issues identified in prior work - such as methods for maintaining long-term use and better integrating with the local health systems - and offer insight into existing design tensions such as the trade-off between maintaining users' privacy (by minimizing the personal data collected) and users' desire to have more information about an exposure incident. We distill from our results and the results of prior work a framework of people's decision points in contact-tracing app use that can serve to motivate careful design of future contact tracing technology.

The COVID-19 Response in North America.

In our Information Technology (IT) based societies, social media plays an important role in communications and social networks for COVID-19. This study explores social responses for COVID-19 in North America, which is the most severe continent affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study employs social network analysis for Twitter among the US, Canada, and Mexico. This study finds that the 3 countries show different characteristics of social networks for COVID-19. For example, the Prime Minister plays the second most important role in the Canadian networks, whereas the Presidents play the most significant role in them, in the US, and Mexico. WHO shows a pivotal effect on social networks of COVID-19 in Canada and the US, whereas it does not affect them in Mexico. Canadians are interested in COVID-19 apps, the American people criticize the president and administration as incompetent in terms of COVID-19, and the Mexican people search for COVID-19 cases and the pandemic in Mexico. This study shows that governments and disease experts should understand social networks and communications of social network services, to develop effective COVID-19 policies according to the characteristics of their country.

Using a proximity detecting technology to nudge for physical distancing in a Swedish workplace during Covid-19: Retrospective Case study.

The recent Covid-19 pandemic has contributed to the emergence of several technologies for infectious disease management. Although much focus has been placed on contact tracing applications, another promising new tactic is proximity tracing that focuses on health-related behavior and can be used for primary prevention. Underpinned by theories on behavioral design, a proximity detecting system can be devised that provides a user with immediate nudges to maintain physical distance to others. The practical feasibility of proximity detection during an infectious disease outbreak has not been sufficiently investigated. In this case study, a wearable proximity detecting technology was used in a workplace for 6 weeks, during the production of a music competition. The purpose of the technology was to nudge users into maintaining physical distance, using auditory feedback. To evaluate the feasibility of using a wearable device to nudge for distance, and to gather important insights about how the functionality and interaction were experienced by the users. The results from this study can guide future research and design efforts in this emerging technology. This retrospective case study uses a mixed methods sequential approach including interviews (n=8) and a survey (n=30), to compile the experiences from using a wearable technology in a real life setting. Themes were generated from qualitative analysis based on data from interviews and survey open-text responses. The quantitative data was subsequently integrated into these themes: Feasibility (Implementation & Acceptance - Establishing a Shared Problem; Distance Tags in Context - Strategy, Environment and Activities; Understanding and Learning; Accomplishing the Purpose), and Design aspects (A Purposefully Annoying Device; Timing, Tone, and Proximity; Additional functions). This empirical study reports on the feasibility of using a wearable technology based on proximity detection, to nudge individuals to maintain physical distance in a workplace. The technology supports an attention to distance, but the usability of this approach is dependent on context and situation. At certain situations, the audio signal is experienced as frustrating, but most users agree that it needs to be annoying to ensure a sufficient behavioral adaption. We propose a dual nudge that involves a vibration followed by a sound. There are indications that the technology also facilitates learning how to maintain a greater distance to others, and that this behavior can persist beyond the context of technology use. This study demonstrates that the key value of this technology is that it places the user in control and enables immediate action in a situation when distance to others is not maintained. The study contributes to insights within the emerging field of personal and wearable technologies used for primary preventive purposes during infectious disease outbreaks. Future research is needed to evaluate the preventive effect on transmission, and to investigate behavior change in more detail and in relation to different forms of feedback.