Contact Heat Evoked Potentials Research Articles

Novel neurophysiological evidence for preserved pain habituation across chronic pain conditions

ObjectiveThe present study aimed to investigate whether subjective and objective measures of pain habituation can be used as potential markers for central sensitization across various chronic pain patients. MethodsTwo blocks of contact-heat stimuli were applied to a non-painful area in 93 chronic pain patients (low back pain, neuropathic pain, and complex regional pain syndrome) and 60 healthy controls (HC). Habituation of pain ratings, contact-heat evoked potentials (CHEP), and sympathetic skin responses (SSR) was measured. ResultsThere was no significant difference in any measure of pain habituation between patients and HC (p>0.05). Even patients with apparent clinical signs of central sensitization showed no reduced pain habituation (p>0.05). However, prolonged baseline CHEP and SSR latencies (stimulation block 1) were found in patients compared to HC (CHEP: Δ-latency=23ms, p=0.012; SSR: Δ-latency=100ms, p=0.022). ConclusionGiven the performed multimodal neurophysiological testing protocol, we provide evidence indicating that pain habituation may be preserved in patients with chronic pain and thereby be of limited use as a sensitive marker for central sensitization. These results are discussed within the framework of the complex interactions between pro- and antinociceptive mechanism as well as methodological issues. The prolonged latencies of CHEP and SSR after stimulation in non-painful areas may indicate subclinical changes in the integrity of thermo-nociceptive afferents, or a shift towards antinociceptive activity. This shift could potentially affect the relay of ascending signals. SignificanceOur findings challenge the prevailing views in the literature and may encourage further investigations into the peripheral and central components of pain habituation, using advanced multimodal neurophysiological techniques.

Potential thresholds of critically increased cardiac-related spinal cord motion in degenerative cervical myelopathy.

New diagnostic techniques are a substantial research focus in degenerative cervical myelopathy (DCM). This cross-sectional study determined the significance of cardiac-related spinal cord motion and the extent of spinal stenosis as indicators of mechanical strain on the cord. Eighty-four DCM patients underwent MRI/clinical assessments and were classified as MRI+ [T2-weighted (T2w) hyperintense lesion in MRI] or MRI- (no T2w-hyperintense lesion). Cord motion (displacement assessed by phase-contrast MRI) and spinal stenosis [adapted spinal canal occupation ratio (aSCOR)] were related to neurological (sensory/motor) and neurophysiological readouts [contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs)] by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. MRI+ patients (N = 31; 36.9%) were more impaired compared to MRI- patients (N = 53; 63.1%) based on the modified Japanese Orthopedic Association (mJOA) subscores for upper {MRI+ [median (Interquartile range)]: 4 (4-5); MRI-: 5 (5-5); p < 0.01} and lower extremity [MRI+: 6 (6-7); MRI-: 7 (6-7); p = 0.03] motor dysfunction and the monofilament score [MRI+: 21 (18-23); MRI-: 24 (22-24); p < 0.01]. Both patient groups showed similar extent of cord motion and stenosis. Only in the MRI- group displacement identified patients with pathologic assessments [trunk/lower extremity pin prick score (T/LEPP): AUC = 0.67, p = 0.03; CHEPs: AUC = 0.73, p = 0.01]. Cord motion thresholds: T/LEPP: 1.67 mm (sensitivity 84.6%, specificity 52.5%); CHEPs: 1.96 mm (sensitivity 83.3%, specificity 65.6%). The aSCOR failed to show any relation to the clinical assessments. These findings affirm cord motion measurements as a promising additional biomarker to improve the clinical workup and to enable timely surgical treatment particularly in MRI- DCM patients. www.clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02170155.

Noninvasive neuromodulation of subregions of the human insula differentially affect pain processing and heart-rate variability: a within-subjects pseudo-randomized trial.

The insula is an intriguing target for pain modulation. Unfortunately, it lies deep to the cortex making spatially specific noninvasive access difficult. Here, we leverage the high spatial resolution and deep penetration depth of low-intensity focused ultrasound (LIFU) to nonsurgically modulate the anterior insula (AI) or posterior insula (PI) in humans for effect on subjective pain ratings, electroencephalographic (EEG) contact heat-evoked potentials, as well as autonomic measures including heart-rate variability (HRV). In a within-subjects, repeated-measures, pseudo-randomized trial design, 23 healthy volunteers received brief noxious heat pain stimuli to the dorsum of their right hand during continuous heart-rate, electrodermal, electrocardiography and EEG recording. Low-intensity focused ultrasound was delivered to the AI (anterior short gyrus), PI (posterior longus gyrus), or under an inert Sham condition. The primary outcome measure was pain rating. Low-intensity focused ultrasound to both AI and PI similarly reduced pain ratings but had differential effects on EEG activity. Low-intensity focused ultrasound to PI affected earlier EEG amplitudes, whereas LIFU to AI affected later EEG amplitudes. Only LIFU to the AI affected HRV as indexed by an increase in SD of N-N intervals and mean HRV low-frequency power. Taken together, LIFU is an effective noninvasive method to individually target subregions of the insula in humans for site-specific effects on brain biomarkers of pain processing and autonomic reactivity that translates to reduced perceived pain to a transient heat stimulus.

Nociceptive Processing of Elite Athletes Varies between Sport-Specific Loads: An EEG-Based Study Approach.

For the downstream nociceptive processing of elite athletes, recent studies indicate that athletes probably tolerate more pain as compared with a normally active population. Phenotyping the nociceptive processing of athletes in different types of endurance sports can provide insight into training-specific effects, which may help in understanding the long-term effects of specific exercise. Twenty-six elite endurance athletes from the disciplines of rowing, triathlon, and running and 26 age- and sex-matched, recreationally active control subjects who participated in the subjective pain perception and processing of standardized noxious stimuli were investigated by EEG. This included standardized heat pain thresholds (HPT) and contact heat-evoked potentials from heat stimulation, measured with EEG as well as pinprick-evoked potentials from mechanical stimulation. After noxious stimulation, athletes showed a higher activation of the event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) patterns in the N2P2 EEG response at the Cz Electrode compared with the controls. After noxious contact heat stimulation, triathletes had a higher ERSP activation compared with the controls, whereas the rowers had a higher ERSP activation after noxious mechanical stimulation. Also, HPT in triathletes were increased despite their increased central activation after thermal stimulation. We found a correlation between increased HPT and training hours and years, although athletes did not differ within these variables. Although we were able to identify differences between athletes of different endurance sports, the reasons and implications of these differences remain unclear. The study of sport-specific somatosensory profiles may help to understand the mechanisms of exercise-related long-term effects on pain processing and perception. Furthermore, sport-specific somatosensory effects may support the personalization of exercise interventions and identify risk factors for chronic pain in elite athletes.

Low-Intensity Focused Ultrasound to the Human Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Attenuates Acute Pain Perception and Autonomic Responses.

The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is a critical brain area for pain and autonomic processing, making it a promising noninvasive therapeutic target. We leverage the high spatial resolution and deep focal lengths of low-intensity focused ultrasound (LIFU) to noninvasively modulate the dACC for effects on behavioral and cardiac autonomic responses using transient heat pain stimuli. A N = 16 healthy human volunteers (6 M/10 F) received transient contact heat pain during either LIFU to the dACC or Sham stimulation. Continuous electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG), and electrodermal response (EDR) were recorded. Outcome measures included pain ratings, heart rate variability, EDR response, blood pressure, and the amplitude of the contact heat-evoked potential (CHEP).LIFU reduced pain ratings by 1.09 ± 0.20 points relative to Sham. LIFU increased heart rate variability indexed by the standard deviation of normal sinus beats (SDNN), low-frequency (LF) power, and the low-frequency/high-frequency (LF/HF) ratio. There were no effects on the blood pressure or EDR. LIFU resulted in a 38.1% reduction in the P2 CHEP amplitude. Results demonstrate LIFU to the dACC reduces pain and alters autonomic responses to acute heat pain stimuli. This has implications for the causal understanding of human pain and autonomic processing in the dACC and potential future therapeutic options for pain relief and modulation of homeostatic signals.

Contact-Heat Evoked Potentials: Insights into Pain Processing in CRPS Type I.

The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of chronic pain in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) are diverse and involve both peripheral and central changes in pain processing, such as sensitization of the nociceptive system. The aim of this study was to objectively distinguish the specific changes occurring at both peripheral and central levels in nociceptive processing in individuals with chronic CRPS type I. Nineteen individuals with chronic CRPS type I and 16 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HC) were recruited. All individuals underwent a clinical examination and pain assessment in the most painful limb, the contralateral limb, and a pain-free control area to distinguish between peripheral and central mechanisms. Contact-heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) were recorded after heat stimulation of the three different areas and amplitudes and latencies were analyzed. Additionally, quantitative sensory testing (QST) was performed in all three areas. Compared to HC, CHEP amplitudes in CRPS were only increased after stimulation of the painful area (p=0.025), while no increases were observed for the pain-free control area (p=0.14). None of the CHEP latencies were different between the two cohorts (all p>0.23). Furthermore, individuals with CRPS showed higher pain ratings after stimulation of the painful limb compared to their contralateral limb (p=0.013). Lastly, compared to HC, mechanical (p=0.012) and thermal (p=0.046) sensitivity was higher in the painful area of the CRPS cohort. This study provides neurophysiological evidence supporting an intact thermo-nociceptive pathway with signs of peripheral sensitization, such as hyperexcitable primary afferent nociceptors, in individuals with CRPS type I. This is further supported by the observation of mechanical and thermal gain of sensation only in the painful limb. Additionally, the increased CHEP amplitudes might be related to fear-induced alterations of nociceptive processing.

Is conditioned pain modulation (CPM) affected by negative emotional state?

Conditioned pain modulation (CPM) is an experimental paradigm, which describes the inhibition of responses to a noxious or strong-innocuous stimulus, the test stimulus (TS), by the additional application of a second noxious or strong-innocuous stimulus, the conditioning stimulus (CS). As inadequate CPM efficiency has been assumed to be predisposing for clinical pain, the search for moderating factors explaining inter-individual variations in CPM is ongoing. Psychological factors have received credits in this context. However, research concerning associations between CPM and trait factors relating to negative emotions has yielded disappointing results. Yet, the influence of anxious or fearful states on CPM has not attracted much interest despite ample evidence that negative affective states enhance pain. Our study aimed at investigating the effect of fear induction by symbolic threat on CPM. Thirty-seven healthy participants completed two experimental blocks: one presenting aversive pictures showing burn wounds (high-threat block) and one presenting neutral pictures (low-threat block). Both blocks contained a CPM paradigm with contact heat as TS and hot water as CS; subjective numerical ratings as well as contact-heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) were assessed. We detected an overall inhibitory CPM effect for CHEPs amplitudes but not for pain ratings. However, we found no evidence for a modulation of CPM by threat despite threat ratings indicating that our manipulation was successful. These results suggest that heat/thermal CPM is resistant to this specific type of symbolic threat induction and further research is necessary to examine whether it is resistant to fearful states in general. The attempt of modulating heat conditioned pain modulation (CPM) by emotional threat (fear/anxiety state) failed. Thus, heat CPM inhibition again appeared resistant to emotional influences. Pain-related brain potentials proved to be more sensitive for CPM effects than subjective ratings.

The effect ofinduced optimism onearly pain processing: indication by contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) andthe sympathetic skin response (SSR).

Situationally induced optimism has been shown to influence several components of experimental pain. The aim of the present study was to enlarge these findings for the first time to the earliest components of the pain response by measuring contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) and the sympathetic skin response (SSR). Forty-seven healthy participants underwent two blocks of phasic thermal stimulation. CHEPs, the SSR and self-report pain ratings were recorded. Between the blocks of stimulation, the 'Best Possible Self' imagery and writing task was performed to induce situational optimism. The optimism manipulation was successful in increasing state optimism. It did, however, neither affect pain-evoked potentials nor the SSR nor self-report pain ratings. These results suggest that optimism does not alter early responses to pain. The higher-level cognitive processes involved in optimistic thinking might only act on later stages of pain processing. Therefore, more research is needed targeting different time frames of stimulus processing and response measures for early and late pain processing in parallel.

Preserved distraction analgesia but greater impact of pain on task performance in older adults compared with younger subjects.

In this study, we compared two working memory conditions to study the analgesic effect of a distraction in elderly vs young people and the effect of pain on performance on the distracting task. Younger (n=27) and older (n= 34) subjects performed 1- and 2-Back working memory tasks, representing low and high cognitive loads, respectively. Infrequent, brief hot nociceptive and cold non-nociceptive stimulations were delivered 100 ms before visual N-Back stimuli. Contact heat-evoked and cold-evoked potentials (N2P2 component) were analyzed in the absence of cognitive tasks and during the N-Back tasks. We compared the pain and cold intensity ratings and reaction times in trials preceded by nociceptive and cold stimulations and in trials not preceded by thermal stimulations between groups and between N-Back conditions. In both groups, performing the 1- and 2-Back working memory tasks reduced the perceived intensity of nociceptive and cold stimuli. In elderly subjects performing 2-Back memory tasks, response times to trials after nociceptive stimulation were longer than those to trials after cold or non-stimulation. By contrast, thermal stimulations had no effect on reaction times in young subjects. The amplitude of the N2P2 component was lower in the older than in the younger group in the absence of a cognitive task. In the older group, N-Back tasks had no effect on the N2P2 amplitude, whereas they reduced N2P2 amplitude in the young. Distraction analgesia is preserved in elderly subjects. However, this successful pain modulation seems to be accompanied by performance costs in the distracting tasks.

Somatosensory and trigeminal pathway abnormalities in Chinese patients with trigeminal neuralgia.

This study aimed to evaluate somatosensory function in Chinese patients with trigeminal neuralgia (TN) using a standard quantitative sensory testing (QST) battery and electrophysiological tests consisting of contact heat-evoked potentials (CHEPs) and blink reflex (BR). Twenty patients with TN and 20 sex- and age-matched healthy controls were recruited for this study. A standard QST protocol recommended by the German Research Network on Neuropathic Pain was carried out on the patients' painful and contralateral faces, the controls' right faces, and all participants' right hands. The CHEPs and BR were recorded at the Cz electrode and bilateral lower bellies of the orbicularis oculi, respectively, with thermal stimuli applied to both sides of the patient's face and the control's right face. The cold detection threshold, heat pain threshold, and mechanical pain threshold on the painful face were lower than those of healthy controls (P < 0.05), whereas the cold pain threshold and mechanical detection threshold were higher (P < 0.05) on the painful faces than those of the contralateral faces from patients or healthy controls. Mechanical pain sensitivity was higher in both test sites than in healthy controls (P < 0.05). Significantly longer N latencies (P < 0.05) and lower N-P amplitudes (P < 0.01) were detected in the patients' painful sites than in the contralateral sites and those of healthy controls. Comprehensive somatosensory abnormalities were found in painful facial sites in patients with TN, suggesting disturbances in the processing of somatosensory stimuli. Deficiencies in electrophysiological tests further revealed unilaterally impaired function of the trigeminal pathway in TN patients.

Effect of Virtual Reality Hypnosis on Pain Threshold and Neurophysiological and Autonomic Biomarkers in Healthy Volunteers: Prospective Randomized Crossover Study.

BackgroundVirtual reality hypnosis (VRH) is a promising tool to reduce pain. However, the benefits of VRH on pain perception and on the physiological expression of pain require further investigation.ObjectiveIn this study, we characterized the effects of VRH on the heat pain threshold among adult healthy volunteers while monitoring several physiological and autonomic functions.MethodsSixty healthy volunteers were prospectively included to receive nociceptive stimulations. The first set of thermal stimuli consisted of 20 stimulations at 60°C (duration 500 milliseconds) to trigger contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs). The second set of thermal stimuli consisted of ramps (1°C/second) to determine the heat pain threshold of the participants. Electrocardiogram, skin conductance responses, respiration rate, as well as the analgesia nociception index were also recorded throughout the experiment.ResultsData from 58 participants were analyzed. There was a small but significant increase in pain threshold in VRH (50.19°C, SD 1.98°C) compared to that in the control condition (mean 49.45°C, SD 1.87; P<.001, Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test; Cohen d=0.38). No significant effect of VRH on CHEPs and heart rate variability parameters was observed (all P>0.5; n=22 and n=52, respectively). During VRH, participants exhibited a clear reduction in their autonomic sympathetic tone, as shown by the lower number of nonspecific skin conductance peak responses (P<.001, two-way analysis of variance; n=39) and by an increase in the analgesia nociception index (P<.001, paired t-test; n=40).ConclusionsThe results obtained in this study support the idea that VRH administration is effective at increasing heat pain thresholds and impacts autonomic functions among healthy volunteers. As a nonpharmacological intervention, VRH has beneficial action on acute experimental heat pain. This beneficial action will need to be evaluated for the treatment of other types of pain, including chronic pain.

Pain-Related Vertex Evoked Potentials. Comparison of Surface Electrical to Heat Stimulation.

Demonstration of nociceptive fiber abnormality is important for diagnosing neuropathic pain and small fiber neuropathies. This is usually assessed by brief heat pulses using lasers, contact heat, or special electrodes. We hypothesized that pain-related evoked potentials to conventional surface electrical stimulation (PREPse) can index Aδ afferences despite tactile Aß fibers coactivation. PREPse may be more readily used clinically than contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPS). Twenty-eight healthy subjects. Vertex (Cz-A1/A2) recordings. Electrical stimulation of middle finger and second toe with conventional ring, and forearm/leg skin with cup, electrodes. Contact heat stimulation to forearm and leg. Compression ischemic nerve blockade. PREPse peripheral velocities were within the midrange of Aδ fibers. N1-P1 amplitude increased with pain numerical rating scale graded (0-10) electrical stimulation (n = 25) and decreased with increasing stimulation frequency. Amplitudes were unchanged by different presentation orders of four stimulation intensities. PREPse N1 (∼130 milliseconds) and N2 (∼345 milliseconds) peaks were approximately 40 milliseconds earlier than that with CHEPS. PREPse and CHEPS N1-N2 interpeak latency (∼207 milliseconds) were similar. PREPse became unrecordable with nerve blockade of Aδ fibers. PREPse earlier N1 and N2 peaks, and similar interpeak N1-N2 latencies and central conduction velocities, or synaptic delays, to CHEPS are consistent with direct stimulation of Aδ fibers. The relation of vertex PREPse amplitude and pain, or the differential effects of frequency stimulation, is similar to pain-related evoked potential to laser, special electrodes, or contact heat stimulation. The relationship to Aδ was validated by conduction velocity and nerve block. Clinical utility of PREPse compared with CHEPS needs validation in somatosensory pathways lesions.

Pain-autonomic interaction is a reliable measure of pain habituation in healthy subjects.

BackgroundHabituation is a response decrement resulting from repeated stimuli. Reduced habituation to noxious stimuli is considered to be a proxy for central sensitization in subjects with chronic pain. Despite numerous investigations of pain habituation in relation to central sensitization, there is no consensus on the most sensitive and reliable readout, as well as analysis approach. Therefore, this study compared the usability and reliability of different readouts and habituation analysis approaches to measure pain habituation in response to repetitive heat simulation.MethodsThree blocks of 20 contact heat stimuli were applied on the volar forearm of 20 healthy subjects on two separate visits. Habituation was assessed by three different readouts: pain ratings, contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) and heat‐induced sympathetic skin responses (SSRs). In addition, two different habituation analysis approaches were used: between the three stimulation blocks (between‐block) and within the first stimulation block (within‐block).ResultsSignificant between‐block habituation for SSRs (p < 0.001), but not for pain ratings (p = 1.000) and CHEPs (p = 0.078) was found. There was significant within‐block habituation for pain ratings (p = 0.012) and SSRs (p < 0.001), but not for CHEPs (p = 0.246). Only the between‐block habituation of heat‐induced SSR was reliable between the two visits (first to second block: intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.58, p = 0.030; first to third block: ICC = 0.64, p = 0.015).ConclusionHeat‐induced SSR as a measure of pain‐autonomic interaction revealed the strongest pain habituation and showed the highest test–retest reliability.

Sensory testing and topical capsaicin can characterize patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Background and objectivesOur study aimed at examining the long-time inflammatory effects of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as chronic immune-mediated disease on pain sensation and neuropathy development compared to healthy subjects (HS).MethodsWe used the quantitative sensory testing (QST) protocol of the German Research Network on Neuropathic Pain and Electroencephalography (EEG)–based contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) before and after topical capsaicin application. We recruited 16 RA patients in remission or low disease activity state (mean age: 59.38 years [± 10.18]) and 16 healthy subjects (mean age: 56.69 years [± 8.92]).ResultsThe application of capsaicin cream on the thigh provoked a stronger effect in HS for both mechanical and heat pain thresholds (MPT and HPT, resp.), according to the area under the receiver operation characteristic (AUROC) (HS: HPT: 0.8965, MPT: 0.7402; RA: HPT: 0.7012, MPT: 0.6113). We observed contrary effects regarding changes in CHEPs (HS: g*max = − 0.65; RA patients: g*max = 0.72).ConclusionAs the overall effect of topical capsaicin application was higher in HS for QST, we suggest the existence of a sensitization of TRPV1 channels in RA patients caused by long-time chronical inflammation, despite a lack of clinical signs of inflammation due to adequate treatment. The effect in CHEPs probably uncovers neuropathic symptoms. The effect of topical capsaicin on HPTs and CHEPs can act as a marker for the extent of sensitization and the development of neuropathic symptoms. Further studies are needed to prove if our proposed method can act as a marker for the success of anti-inflammatory treatment.Key Points• The effect of topical capsaicin may represent the extent of TRPV1 sensitization in rheumatoid arthritis.• The effect of topical capsaicin on the amplitude level of CHEPs can unmask neuropathic symptoms.• The effect of topical capsaicin on CHEPs and HPTs can show the long-term consequences and the treatment success of RA patients in remission.

Improved acquisition of contact heat evoked potentials with increased heating ramp

Contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) represent an objective and non-invasive measure to investigate the integrity of the nociceptive neuraxis. The clinical value of CHEPs is mostly reflected in improved diagnosis of peripheral neuropathies and spinal lesions. One of the limitations of conventional contact heat stimulation is the relatively slow heating ramp (70 °C/s). This is thought to create a problem of desynchronized evoked responses in the brain, particularly after stimulation in the feet. Recent technological advancements allow for an increased heating ramp of contact heat stimulation, however, to what extent these improve the acquisition of evoked potentials is still unknown. In the current study, 30 healthy subjects were stimulated with contact heat at the hand and foot with four different heating ramps (i.e., 150 °C/s, 200 °C/s, 250 °C/s, and 300 °C/s) to a peak temperature of 60 °C. We examined changes in amplitude, latency, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the vertex (N2-P2) waveforms. Faster heating ramps decreased CHEP latency for hand and foot stimulation (hand: F = 18.41, p < 0.001; foot: F = 4.19, p = 0.009). Following stimulation of the foot only, faster heating ramps increased SNR (F = 3.32, p = 0.024) and N2 amplitude (F = 4.38, p = 0.007). Our findings suggest that clinical applications of CHEPs should consider adopting faster heating ramps up to 250 °C/s. The improved acquisition of CHEPs might consequently reduce false negative results in clinical cohorts. From a physiological perspective, our results demonstrate the importance of peripherally synchronizing afferents recruitment to satisfactorily acquire CHEPs.

Contact Heat Evoked Potentials in China: Normal Values and Reproducibility.

Background: Contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) is used to diagnose small fiber neuropathy (SFN). We established the normal values of CHEPs parameters in Chinese adults, optimized the test technique, and determined its reproducibility.Methods: We recruited 151 healthy adults (80 men; mean age, 37 ± 14 years). CHEPs was performed on the right forearm to determine the optimal number of stimuli, and then conducted at different sites to establish normal values, determine the effects of demographic characteristics and baseline temperature, and assess the short- (30 min) and long-term (1 year) reproducibility. N2 latency/height varied with age and sex, while P2 latency/height and N2–P2 amplitude varied with age. The optimal number of stimuli was three.Results: N2 latency/height (t = 5.45, P < 0.001) and P2 latency/height (χ2 = −4.06, P < 0.001) decreased and N2–P2 amplitude (t = −5.01, P < 0.001) and visual analog scale score (χ2 = −5.84, P < 0.001) increased with increased baseline temperature (35 vs. 32°C). CHEPs parameters did not differ with time (baseline vs. 30 min vs. 1 year).Conclusion: We established normal CHEPs values in Chinese adults. We found that CHEPs parameters changed with baseline temperature and that the short- and long-term test reproducibility were satisfactory.

Corneal confocal microscopy detects small-fiber neuropathy in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Objective: To investigate small fiber neuropathy in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) by corneal confocal microscopy. Methods: A total of 57 ALS patients were consecutively enrolled in Department of Neurology between June 2015 and February 2016, including 37 men and 20 women with mean age 24-80 (52±11) years. There were 30 controls including 21 men and 9 women with mean age 23-76 (55±13) years. All subjects underwent corneal confocal microscopy (CCM), contact heat evoked potential (CHEP) and skin sympathetic reflection (SSR) to quantify small nerve fiber pathology. Four parameters, such as nerve fiber length (NFL), nerve branch density (NBD), nerve fiber density (NFD) and nerve fiber tortuosity (NFT) were assessed by corneal confocal microscopy. All statistical calculations were conducted using SPSS version 12.0. Results: Compared with control group, corneal nerve fiber length (NFL),nerve fiber density (NFD) were significantly decreased [(12.2±4.4)mm/mm2 vs.(15.1±4.5) mm/mm2,P=0.028;(50.8±24.0)/mm2 vs. (68.3±16.4)/mm2,P=0.002],and nerve fiber tortuosity (NFT) were significantly increased [(2.6±1.0)level vs.(1.0±0.5)level, P<0.01)] in SFN group, while nerve branch density (NBD) were comparable (P=0.700).The course of disease is correlated with NFT (r=0.25,P=0.030). Conclusions: CCM is a new sensitive noninvasive clinical technique that detects early small fiber nerve damage in patients with ALS.

Identifying Discomplete Spinal Lesions: New Evidence from Pain-Autonomic Interaction in Spinal Cord Injury.

The clinical evaluation of spinal afferents is an important diagnostic and prognostic marker for neurological and functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI). Particularly important regarding neuropathic pain following SCI is the function of the spinothalamic tract (STT) conveying nociceptive and temperature information. Here, we investigated the added value of neurophysiological methods revealing discomplete STT lesions; that is, residual axonal sparing in clinically complete STT lesions. Specifically, clinical pinprick testing and thermal thresholds were compared with objective contact heat-evoked potentials (CHEPs) and a novel measure of pain-autonomic interaction employing heat-induced sympathetic skin responses (SSR). The test stimuli (i.e., contact heat, pinprick) were applied below the lesion level in 32 subjects with thoracic SCI while corresponding heat-evoked responses (i.e., CHEPs and SSR) were recorded above the lesion (i.e., scalp and hand, respectively). Readouts of STT function were related to neuropathic pain characteristics. In subjects with abolished pinprick sensation, measures of thermosensation (10%), CHEPs (33%), and SSR (48%) revealed residual STT function. Importantly, SSRs can be used as an objective readout and when abolished, no other proxy indicated residual STT function. No relationship was found between STT function readouts and spontaneous neuropathic pain intensity and extent. However, subjects with clinically preserved STT function presented more often with allodynia (54%) than subjects with discomplete (13%) or complete STT lesions (18%). In individuals with absent pinprick sensation, discomplete STT lesions can be revealed employing pain-autonomic measures. The improved sensitivity to discerning STT lesion completeness might support the investigation of its association with neuropathic pain following SCI.

Individual Difference in Cooperation and Reciprocal Choice: Findings From the Prisoner’s Dilemma

Following nociceptive heat or laser stimulation, an early contralateral and later vertex potential can be recorded. Although more indicative of the nociceptive input, the acquisition of the contralateral N1 after contact heat stimulation (contact heat-evoked potentials [CHEPs]) remains difficult. An advantage of contact heat is that the baseline skin temperature preceding peak stimulation can be controlled. Increasing the baseline temperature may represent a novel strategy to improve the acquisition of CHEPs without resulting in more subjective pain to stimulation. A study was undertaken in 23 healthy subjects to examine the effects of increasing the baseline temperature but not the perceived intensity of contact heat stimulation. A combined standard averaging and single-trial analysis was performed to disclose how changes in averaged waveforms related to latency jitter and individual trial amplitudes. By increasing the baseline temperature, the acquisition of N1 was improved among subjects with a low-amplitude response (greater than −4 μV) following 35°C baseline temperature stimulation (P < .05). Based on standard averaging, N2/P2 amplitudes were also significantly increased with and without an accompanying change in the rating of perceived pain when the baseline temperature was increased (P < .05). In contrast, automated single-trial averaging revealed no significant difference in N2 amplitude when the baseline temperature was increased to 42°C and the peak temperature reduced. These findings suggest that 2 mechanisms underlie the improved acquisition of CHEPs: increased synchronization of afferent volley, yielding larger-amplitude evoked potentials in response to the same rating of intensity; and reduced inter-trial variability.

An intensity matched comparison of laser- and contact heat evoked potentials

Previous studies comparing laser (LEPs) and contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) consistently reported higher amplitudes following laser compared to contact heat stimulation. However, none of the studies matched the perceived pain intensity, questioning if the observed difference in amplitude is due to biophysical differences between the two methods or a mismatch in stimulation intensity. The aims of the current study were twofold: (1) to directly compare the brain potentials induced by intensity matched laser and contact heat stimulation and (2) investigate how capsaicin-induced secondary hyperalgesia modulates LEPs and CHEPs. Twenty-one healthy subjects were recruited and measured at four experimental sessions: (1) CHEPs + sham, (2) LEPs + sham, (3) CHEPs + capsaicin, and (4) LEPs + capsaicin. Baseline (sham) LEPs latency was significantly shorter and amplitude significantly larger compared to CHEPs, even when matched for perceived pain. Neither CHEPs nor LEPs was sensitive enough to detect secondary hyperalgesia. These differences provide evidence that a faster heating rate results in an earlier and more synchronized LEPs than CHEPs. To our knowledge, this was the first study to match perceived intensity of contact heat and laser stimulations, revealing distinct advantages associated with the acquisition of LEPs.