Consumption Of Energy-dense Foods Research Articles

Early Sleep Midpoints are Associated with Increased Fruit, Water, and Fiber Intakes and Decreased Discretionary Calories in a Young Adult Cohort

Previous research suggests a link between poor sleep quality and increased consumption of energy dense foods. However, little is known about the timing [midpoint] of sleep and whether or not it affects dietary intake. The purpose of this study was to determine if early, middle, or late sleep midpoints were associated with healthier diets among students participating in the ongoing College Health and Nutrition Assessment Survey at the University of New Hampshire between 2012‐14 [n= 1,302; 69.6% female; mean age=19 years]. Sleep behaviors were collected from an online questionnaire and dietary intakes were assessed using three‐day food records and nutrient analysis software (Diet Analysis Plus). Sleep midpoints were calculated from self‐reported bed times and rise times on usual weekdays and subsequently divided into tertiles. On average, students reported 8.14 hours of sleep and had a sleep midpoint time of 3:54 am. As compared to those in the latest sleep midpoint tertile, students in the earliest tertile had higher intakes of fruit (1.5±.1 vs. 1.3±.1 cups, p<0.05), fiber (23.1±.4 vs. 19.8±.4 grams, p<0.05), total water (2.1±.1 vs. 1.8±.1 L, p<0.05), and a lower ratio of discretionary calories to total calories (28.9±.5 vs. 30.8±.5%, p<0.05). No differences were seen in total fat or carbohydrate intake between tertiles. Findings from this project suggest college students with earlier sleep midpoints consume healthier diets, including more fruit and less discretionary calories.

Food security, maternal feeding practices and child weight-for-length

BackgroundOver consumption of energy-dense nutrient-poor foods may contribute to childhood obesity. We hypothesized that greater than recommended servings of sugar sweetened beverages and foods, indicators of food security, and a high maternal recumbent weight-for-length are positively associated with high percentages of child overweight/obesity. MethodsThis secondary data analysis consisted of a sample of 240 mother-child dyads. The original studies were designed to examine the effect of a public health nursing intervention on optimal childhood growth for low-income, minority children. Eligibility to participate included: 1) mothers self-identified as Hispanic; 2) children were 12–24 months old; and 3) children were enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC); and 4) children were free of any major disease. Multivariate logistic regression examined the association between child weight, weight-for-length, maternal recumbent weight-for-length, child’s eating schedule, maternal attitudes on feeding, food security, and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, desserts and fatty meats. ResultsReceiving SNAP was positively associated with child weight-for-length (WL). Children whose mothers reported ever having received SNAP were 2.01 times more likely to be overweight compared to children whose mothers did not report ever having received SNAP (95% CI=1.04–3.90). Children who consumed desserts were 2.87 times more likely to be overweight compared to children who did not consume desserts (95% CI=1.19–6.88). Also, child’s caloric intake was significantly associated with child WL. Children who consumed more calories were 1.00 times more likely to be overweight compared to children who consumed fewer calories (95% CI=1.00–1.00). DiscussionResearch on food security and children’s weight has reported mixed findings. Methodological issues have been identified as contributory to the inconsistent findings. Of paramount importance to these studies is the measurement of low food security. ConclusionChildren in this sample who were food insecure, as indicated by SNAP recipients, were more likely to have a higher WL measurement. Future studies should focus on the correlation between food security and hunger/satiety cues.

Self-Efficacy and Self-Reported Dietary Behaviors in Adolescents at an Urban School With No Competitive Foods.

Over one third of U.S. adolescents are overweight. A descriptive, cross-sectional study examined the relationship between student dietary self-efficacy (SE), sugar-sweetened beverages, and low-nutrient energy-dense food consumption, and exposure to a healthy school food environment without competitive foods. The sample consisted of 292 urban, primarily African American students aged 11 to 16 years. Mantel-Haenszel χ(2) analyses revealed a significant but weak linear trend for girls between number of school meals and SE to drink less soda, χ(2)(1) = 6.882, p = .008, and between semesters attended with SE to eat more fruits and vegetables, χ(2)(1) = 5.908, p = .015. Obese students had significantly higher scores for two SE items than nonobese students, that is, plan better nutrition, χ(2)(1) = 3.998, p = .045, and eat healthy at a fast-food restaurant, χ(2)(1) = 4.078, p = .043. Further study of adolescent SE for healthy eating and school-based, food-focused obesity prevention interventions is needed.

Prevalence of overweight/obesity among primary school pupils in Urban Centre, Nigeria

Background: Overweight and obesity, initially thought to be the problem of the developed countries, are rapidly rising in the developing countries constituting a high proportion of nutritional problems in these countries. Several factors, including changing lifestyle and improved economic power, are believed to contribute to this trend. This pattern if unchecked is known to lead to several medical complications. We thus aim to assess and compare the prevalence of overweight/obesity among primary school pupils from the public and private schools as well as determine factors contributing to the rising trend. Materials and Methods: Four hundred and twenty primary school children from public and private schools were selected using multistage stratified random sampling. Relevant information was obtained using a questionnaire, and anthropometric indices were recorded. Data obtained were analyzed using EPI INFO version 3.5.1. and frequencies were compared using Chi-square. Results: Seventy-three (17.4%) of the 420 pupils studied were found to be overweight/obese. Pupils from private school accounted for the majority of these cases with 28 (13.3%) and 29 (13.8%) of them being overweight and obese, respectively. High socioeconomic class and consumption of energy-dense diet were significantly associated with high prevalence of overweight/obesity (P < 0.001). In contrast, regular physical activity was significantly associated with low prevalence (P < 0.001). Conclusion and Recommendations: Prevalence of overweight/obesity among primary school pupils is quite high in Lagos, Nigeria. High socioeconomic class, consumption of energy dense food, and lack of adequate physical activities appear to be major factors contributing to this high prevalence. Introduction of daily school meal and mandatory physical activity in all the schools would go a long way in imbibing healthy eating and lifestyle pattern into these children. Public nutritional education and campaign on the importance of healthy lifestyle and complications associated with overweight and obesity would probably reverse the trend.

Stigma and the addiction paradigm for obesity: lessons from 1950s America.

To discuss an historical episode in which obesity was conceptualized as an addictive disorder and declared to be a major epidemic in the early postwar United States. This history illuminates past consequences of framing obesity as an addiction in ways that may inform constructive policy responses today. Review of secondary and primary sources, including archival documents, relating to obesity in biomedical and popular thought of the 1940s and 1950s. In the United States in the late 1940s and 1950s, new medical thinking about obesity reinterpreted overweight and obesity as chiefly the consequence of addiction (understood in the then dominant psychodynamic theory as a psychological defect, oral fixation). This new conception was rapidly taken up in popular discourse and clinical practice, with adverse effects through amplification of weight stigma. Further, in the conservative political context, the addiction concept contributed to an ineffective policy response to the alarming new epidemiological evidence about obesity's consequences. Despite a lack of evidence for efficacy of the intervention, public health efforts focused on correcting individual eating behaviour among obese people by encouraging self-help in lay groups modelled, in part, on Alcoholics Anonymous. Population-level intervention was neglected. Current public health policy initiatives must be mindful of the risks of reframing obesity as an addiction. These include inadvertently reinforcing stigma, narrowing responses to those aiming to modify individual behaviour and biology and neglecting population policies aiming to reduce the consumption of energy-dense foods, as all occurred in the 1950s United States.

Intake of Energy-Dense Foods, Fast Foods, Sugary Drinks, and Breast Cancer Risk in African American and European American Women

Limiting energy-dense foods, fast foods, and sugary drinks that promote weight gain is a cancer prevention recommendation, but no studies have evaluated intake in relation to breast cancer risk in African American (AA) women. In a case-control study with 1692 AA women (803 cases and 889 controls) and 1456 European American (EA) women (755 cases and 701 controls), odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for risk were computed, stratifying for menopausal and estrogen receptor (ER) status. Among postmenopausal EA women, breast cancer risk was associated with frequent consumption of energy-dense foods (OR = 2.95; 95% CI: 1.66–5.22), fast foods (OR = 2.35; 95% CI: 1.38–4.00), and sugary drinks (OR = 2.05; 95% CI: 1.13–3.70). Elevated risk of ER+ tumors in EA women was associated with energy-dense (OR = 1.75; 95% CI: 1.14–2.69) and fast foods (OR = 1.84; 95% CI: 1.22–2.77). Among AA women, frequent fast food consumption was related to premenopausal breast cancer risk (OR = 1.97; 95% CI: 1.13–3.43), and with ER+ tumors. Energy adjustment attenuated risk estimates in AA women, while strengthening them among EA women. Frequent consumption of energy-dense and fast foods that have poor nutritive value appeared to increase breast cancer risk in AA and EA women, with differences by menopausal status and ER status.

Change in sleep duration and proposed dietary risk factors for obesity in Danish school children.

Recent cross-sectional studies found higher consumption of energy-dense foods among children with short sleep duration; however, longitudinal studies examining changes in sleep and diet over time are needed. This study aimed to investigate prospective associations between changes in objectively measured sleep duration and alterations in proposed dietary risk factors for obesity in 8-11-year-old Danish children. Four hundred forty-one children recorded dietary intake during seven consecutive days, along with accelerometer measurements estimating sleep duration at baseline and after ∼200 days. Baseline sleep duration did not predict changes in dietary intake or vice versa (all P ≥ 0.69). However, 1-h lower sleep duration was associated with higher intake of added sugar (1.59 E%; P = 0.001) and sugar-sweetened beverages (0.90 E%; P = 0.002) after 200 days with no change in energy density of the diet (P = 0.78). Our results suggest that a negative change in sleep duration is associated with higher intakes of sugar containing foods/beverages.

Evaluating the effect of energy-dense foods consumption on preschool children's body mass index: a prospective analysis from 2 to 4 years of age.

The aim of this study was to study the association between the consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years and body mass index (BMI) at 4 years, using a cross-lagged panel design. The present study included 589 children evaluated at 2 and 4 years of age, as part of the birth cohort generation XXI. Information was obtained by face-to-face interviews. Consumption of energy-dense foods (salty snacks, soft drinks, cakes, and sweets) was measured using a food frequency questionnaire. Children's weight and height were measured by standard procedures, and BMI standard deviation scores (BMI z-scores) were calculated according to the World Health Organization. Linear regression and cross-lagged panel design models were fitted to estimate the associations between the consumption of energy-dense foods and BMI z-scores (controlled for maternal age, education and prepregnancy BMI, and children's exact age at 2 years). The consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years was significantly associated with their consumption at 4 years (β = 0.522, 95% CI 0.432-0.612). Children's BMI z-scores at 2 years were associated with posterior BMI z-scores (β = 0.747, 95% CI 0.688-0.806). In the cross-lagged analysis, consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years had no effect on subsequent BMI z-scores (β = -0.030, 95% CI -0.095 to 0.035) and BMI z-scores at 2 years were not significantly associated with the consumption of energy-dense foods at 4 years (β = -0.012, 95% CI -0.086 to 0.062). Consumption of energy-dense foods and BMI tracked over time, but the consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years was not associated with BMI z-scores at 4 years.

The role of sweet taste in satiation and satiety.

Increased energy consumption, especially increased consumption of sweet energy-dense food, is thought to be one of the main contributors to the escalating rates in overweight individuals and obesity globally. The individual’s ability to detect or sense sweetness in the oral cavity is thought to be one of many factors influencing food acceptance, and therefore, taste may play an essential role in modulating food acceptance and/or energy intake. Emerging evidence now suggests that the sweet taste signaling mechanisms identified in the oral cavity also operate in the gastrointestinal system and may influence the development of satiety. Understanding the individual differences in detecting sweetness in both the oral and gastrointestinal system towards both caloric sugar and high intensity sweetener and the functional role of the sweet taste system may be important in understanding the reasons for excess energy intake. This review will summarize evidence of possible associations between the sweet taste mechanisms within the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract and the brain systems towards both caloric sugar and high intensity sweetener and sweet taste function, which may influence satiation, satiety and, perhaps, predisposition to being overweight and obesity.

Brain responses to food and weight loss

In this symposium report, we examine how functional neuroimaging has revolutionized the study of human eating behaviour. In the last 20 years, functional magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography techniques have enabled researchers to understand how the human brain regions that control homeostatic and hedonic eating respond to food in physiological and pathological states. Hypothalamic, brainstem, limbic and cortical brain areas form part of a well-co-ordinated brain system that responds to central and peripheral neuronal, hormonal and nutrient signals. Even in physiological conditions, it promotes the consumption of energy-dense food, because this is advantageous in evolutionary terms. Its function is dysregulated in the context of obesity so as to promote weight gain and resist weight loss. Pharmacological and bariatric surgical interventions might be more successful than lifestyle interventions in inducing weight loss and maintenance because, unlike dieting, they reduce not only hunger but also the reward value of food through their actions in homeostatic and hedonic brain regions. Functional neuroimaging is a research tool that cannot be used in isolation; its findings become meaningful and useful only when combined with data from direct measures of eating behaviour. The neuroimaging technology is continuously improving and is expected to contribute further to the in-depth understanding of the obesity phenotype and accelerate the development of more effective and safer treatments for the condition.

Low levels of physical activity in female adolescents cause overweight and obesity: are our schools failing our children?

The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity among female adolescents is a global health problem. In developing countries such as South Africa, this increase is often associated with urbanisation and the adoption of a Western lifestyle. Two aspects of the Western lifestyle that contribute to the development of overweight and obesity are a decrease in physical activity levels and an increase in the consumption of energy-dense food, high in fats and refined sugar. Information on the prevalence of increased body fatness in populations in transition is scarce, but necessary for effective planning and intervention. Current indications are that there is a trend towards unhealthy behaviour among high-school girls, globally and in South Africa. Schools can play an important role in the prevention of overweight and obesity among schoolgirls. It is recommended that school governing bodies institute remedial action to prevent weight gain in children, especially girls.

The Associations between Emotional Eating and Consumption of Energy-Dense Snack Foods Are Modified by Sex and Depressive Symptomatology

In recent years, emotional eating (EmE) has incited substantial research interest as an important psychologic determinant of food intake and overweight. However, little is known about factors that might modulate its relations with dietary habits. The objective of this study was to examine the association between EmE and consumption of energy-dense snack food and assess the 2-way interaction of EmE with sex and depressive symptoms. A total of 7378 men and 22,862 women from the NutriNet-Santé cohort (France, 2009–2013) who completed ≥6 self-reported 24-h food records were included in this cross-sectional analysis. EmE was evaluated via the revised 21-item Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. The associations between EmE and energy-dense food consumption were assessed by multivariable logistic and linear regression models adjusted for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Higher EmE was associated with higher consumption of energy-dense snacks and, in particular, with consumption of sweet-and-fatty foods across most categories studied. However, these associations were stronger in women with depressive symptoms (e.g., high consumption of chocolate, OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.43, 2.20; cakes/biscuits/pastries, OR: 1.81, 95% CI: 1.45, 2.26) compared with those without depressive symptoms (e.g., high consumption of chocolate, OR: 1.52, 95% CI: 1.36, 1.69; cakes/biscuits/pastries, OR: 1.44, 95% CI: 1.29, 1.61). In contrast, the significant positive associations observed in men without depressive symptoms (e.g., high consumption of chocolate, OR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.16, 1.52; cakes/biscuits/pastries, OR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.11, 1.48) were not found in men with depressive symptoms. In conclusion, in women, EmE was positively associated with consumption of energy-dense snack food, particularly in those with depressive symptoms. For men, the relation between EmE and energy-dense snack foods was found only in those without depressive symptoms. These findings call for consideration of the psychologic state when targeting unhealthy dietary habits, especially in women. This trial was registered at eudract.ema.europa.eu as 2013-000929-31.

The influence of socioeconomic factors and family context on energy-dense food consumption among 2-year-old children.

Adverse effect on health has been described for a high consumption of energy-dense food, among children and adults. Limited research has been performed among pre-school children. The objective of this study is to evaluate the association between socioeconomic characteristics and family structure, and the consumption of energy-dense food among 2-year-old children. The study sample includes 808 2-year-old children from the Portuguese birth cohort Generation XXI with information on food consumption. Data were obtained from questionnaires administered by interviewers to parents. Based on a food frequency questionnaire, four groups of energy-dense food were defined: soft drinks (sweetened drinks), sweets (chocolate and candies), cakes (creamy and not creamy cakes and sweet pastry) and salty snacks (crisps, pizza and burger). Multinomial logistic regression models (odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals) were fitted to estimate the associations. Intakes of energy-dense food were much lower than in similar aged children in other Westernized countries. Maternal age and education, grandparents' education, household income and maternal occupation were inversely associated with the consumption of energy-dense food, particularly soft drinks and sweets. Children with older siblings were more likely to have a daily consumption of any energy-dense food. Few significant associations were found between socioeconomic characteristics and family structure and consumption of cakes and sweets less than once a week. High socioeconomic characteristics were associated with lower consumption of energy-dense food by 2-year-old children, mainly soft drinks and sweets. This influence is not only from parents' background but also from the preceding generations.

Fruits and vegetables displace, but do not decrease, total energy in school lunches.

The high overweight and obesity prevalence among US children is a well-established public health concern. Diet is known to play a causal role in obesity. Increasing fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption to recommended levels is proposed to help reduce obesity, because their bulk and low energy density are believed to reduce energy-dense food consumption (volume displacement hypothesis). This study tests this hypothesis at the lunch meal among upper-elementary students participating in a Farm to School (F2S) program. Digital photographs of students' school lunch trays were visually analyzed to identify the food items and amounts that were present and consumed before and after the meal. Using the USDA Nutrient Database, total and FV-only energy were calculated for each tray. Analysis of total- and non-FV energy intake was performed according to (1) levels of FV energy intake, (2) FV energy density, and (3) previous years of Farm to School programming. Higher intake of FV energy displaced non-FV energy, but total energy did not decrease across FV energy intake groups. High-FV-energy-density trays showed lower non-FV energy intake than low-FV-energy-density trays (470±179 vs. 534±219 kcal; p<0.0001). Trays from schools with more previous years of F2S programming decreased total and non-FV energy intake from school lunches (p for trend<0.0001, both). Increased FV consumption reduces non-FV energy intake, but does not reduce total energy intake. Therefore, this study does not support the volume displacement hypothesis and suggests calorie displacement instead.

Secular changes in body size and body composition in schoolchildren from La Plata City (Argentina).

To analyze the secular changes in body size and composition of two cohorts of children from La Plata City, Argentina, with a 35-year follow-up. subjects and methods: Cohort 1 (C1) was measured in 1969-1970 and included 1772 children (889 boys, 883 girls), and Cohort 2 (C2), measured in 2004-2005, included 1059 children (542 boys, 517 girls). Both cohorts were obtained from matching geographical areas and comprised children from 4 to 12 years. Body weight (W); Height (H); Upper arm circumference (UAC); Tricipital (TS) and Subscapular skinfolds (SS) were measured, and Body Mass Index (BMI) and muscle (UMA) and fat (AFA) brachial areas were calculated. Prevalence of overweight and obesity was estimated by IOTF. To compare C1-C2 we used a generalized linear model with log-transformed variables, and chi square test. There were significant and positive differences between C2-C1 in W, UAC, SS, TS, and AFA. In contrast, H was not significantly different and UMA was significantly different but with negative values. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 14.5% and 3.8% in C1, and 17.0% and 6.8% in C2. Differences between cohorts were significant for obesity. The shifts observed for soft tissues--positive trend for fat and negative for muscle area--occurring without changes in height lead us to suppose that in these three decades, La Plata's population has experienced deterioration in living conditions and important changes in their lifestyle, such as an increased consumption of energy-dense foods and sedentary habits.

Efetividade de uma intervenção de base escolar sobre as práticas alimentares em estudantes do ensino médio

Interventions during adolescence are important for modifying risk eating behavior that contribute to the early development of obesity and other non-transmissible chronic diseases, such as the consumption of high energy-dense and low nutrient-dense foods. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of a school-based intervention on the diet of high school students who study at night. Randomized controlled study conducted in 2006 in two Brazilian state capitals (Florianopolis and Recife). The intervention included multiple strategies for improving healthy eating and physical activity. Weekly frequency consumption of fruits, vegetables, dairy products, salty snacks, sweets and soft drinks, daily frequency consumption of fruits and vegetables and stages of change in fruit and vegetable consumption behavior were investigated using questionnaires. A total of 2155 students were included (mean age ± SD = 18.4 years ± 2.4) at baseline, 989 of whom remained in post-intervention. Bivariate analyses indicated greater frequency of vegetable consumption (p=0.008) and lower frequency of sweets (p=0.032) and soft drinks (p=0.003) in the intervention group compared to controls. The change in behavior was also favorable for the intervention group (p=0.016). Analysis regression showed positive effects of complying with vegetable intake recommendations (OR = 1.54 CI95% 1.19-1.97) and favorable changes in lower sweet consumption (OR = 1.21 CI95% 1.02-1.43) in the intervention group, compared to controls. We found positive effects on the eating habits of the students as a result of The Saude na Boa Project.

Energy density of the Scottish diet estimated from food purchase data: relationship with socio-economic position and dietary targets.

Frequent consumption of energy-dense foods has been strongly implicated in the global increase of obesity. The World Cancer Research Fund suggests a population-level energy density (ED) goal for diets of 523 kJ/100 g (125 kcal/100 g) as desirable for reducing weight gain and related co-morbidities. However, there is limited information about the ED of diets of contemporary populations. The aims of the present study were to (1) estimate the mean ED of the Scottish diet, (2) assess differences in ED over time by socio-economic position, by household (HH) composition and for HH meeting dietary targets for fat and fruit and vegetables, and (3) assess the relationship between ED and the consumption of foods and nutrients, which are indicative of diet quality. ED of the diet was estimated from food (including milk) from UK food purchase survey data. The average ED of the Scottish diet was estimated as 718 kJ/100 g with no change between the survey periods 2001 and 2009. Individuals living in the most deprived areas had a higher mean ED than those living in the least deprived areas (737 v. 696 kJ/100 g). Single-parent HH had the highest mean ED (765 kJ/100 g) of all the HH surveyed. The mean ED of HH achieving dietary targets for fat and fruit and vegetables was 576 kJ/100 g compared with 731 kJ/100 g for non-achievers. HH within the lowest quintile of ED were, on average, closest to meeting most dietary guidelines. Food purchase data can be used to monitor the quality of the diet in terms of dietary ED of the population and subgroups defined by an area-based measure of socio-economic status.

Rats eat a cafeteria-style diet to excess but eat smaller amounts and less frequently when tested with chow.

BackgroundObesity is associated with excessive consumption of palatable, energy dense foods. The present study used an animal model to examine feeding patterns during exposure to and withdrawal from these foods.MethodsMale Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to standard lab chow only (Chow rats) or a range of cafeteria-style foods eaten by people (Caf rats). After 1, 4, 7 and 10 weeks of diet in their home cage, rats were subjected to 24-hour test sessions in a Comprehensive Lab Animal Monitoring System (CLAMS). In the first two test sessions, Chow rats were exposed to standard lab chow only while Caf rats were exposed to a biscuit and high-fat chow diet. In the final two test sessions, half the rats in each group were switched to the opposing diet. In each session we recorded numbers of bouts, energy consumed per bout, and intervals between bouts across the entire 24 hours.ResultsRelative to Chow rats, Caf rats initiated fewer bouts but consumed more energy per bout; however, their motivation to feed in the CLAMS declined over time, which was attributed to reduced variety of foods relative to their home cage diet. This decline in motivation was especially pronounced among Caf rats switched from the palatable CLAMS diet to standard lab chow only: the reduced energy intake in this group was due to a modest decline in bout frequency and a dramatic decline in bout size.ConclusionsExposure to a cafeteria-diet, rich in variety, altered feeding patterns, reduced rats' motivation to consume palatable foods in the absence of variety, and further diminished motivation to feed when palatable foods were withdrawn and replaced with chow. Hence, variety is a key factor in driving excessive consumption of energy dense foods, and therefore, excessive weight gain.

Obesity as a consequence of gut bacteria and diet interactions.

Obesity is a major public health concern, caused by a combination of increased consumption of energy-dense foods and reduced physical activity, with contributions from host genetics, environment, and adipose tissue inflammation. In recent years, the gut microbiome has also been found to be implicated and augmented research in mice and humans have attributed to it both the manifestation and/or exacerbation of this major epidemic and vice versa. At the experimental level, analysis of fecal samples revealed a potential link between obesity and alterations in the gut flora (drop in Bacteroidetes and increase in Firmicutes), the specific gut microbiome being associated with the obese phenotype. Conventionally raised mice were found to have over 40% more total body fat compared with those raised under germ-free conditions, while conventionalization of germ-free mice resulted in a significant increase in total body fat. Similarly, the sparse data in humans supports the fact that fat storage is favoured by the presence of the gut microbiota, through a multifaceted mechanism. Efforts to identify new therapeutic strategies to modulate gut microbiota would be of high priority for public health, and to date, probiotics and/or prebiotics seem to be the most effective tools.

Association between energy-dense food consumption at 2 years of age and diet quality at 4 years of age

The present study aimed to evaluate the association between the consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years of age and the consumption of foods and diet quality at 4 years of age. The sample included 705 children evaluated at 2 and 4 years of age, as part of the population-based birth cohort Generation XXI (Porto, Portugal). Data on sociodemographic and lifestyle factors of both children and mothers were collected by face-to-face interviews. The weight and height of children were measured by trained professionals. Based on FFQ, four energy-dense food groups were defined: soft drinks; sweets; cakes; salty snacks. A healthy eating index was developed using the WHO dietary recommendations for children (2006) aged 4 years. The associations were evaluated through Poisson regression models. After adjustment for maternal age and education, child's carer, child's siblings and child's BMI, higher consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years of age was found to be associated with higher consumption of the same foods 2 years later. An inverse association was found between the intake (≥ median) of soft drinks (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0.74, 95% CI 0.58, 0.95), salty snacks (IRR = 0.80, 95% CI 0.65, 1.00) and sweets (IRR = 0.73, 95% CI 0.58, 0.91) at 2 years of age and the consumption of fruit and vegetables at 4 years of age (≥ 5 times/d). Weekly and daily consumption of energy-dense foods at 2 years of age was associated with a lower healthy eating score at 4 years of age (IRR = 0.75, 95% CI 0.58, 0.96; IRR = 0.56, 95% CI 0.41, 0.77, respectively). The consumption of energy-dense foods at young ages is negatively associated with the diet quality of children a few years later.