Consumption-based Perspective Research Articles

Tele-connecting renewable energy availability from production to consumption via multi-national supply chains

Renewable energy transition is recognized as an irreplaceable strategy under low-carbon transition, which has gradually drawn due attention worldwide. Through combining the gravity center and the Lorentz curve, this study conducts a comparative assessment to depict gravity center trajectories across countries/regions and renewable energy inequality within income groups, providing a new perspective to clarify renewable energy transition worldwide. From the results, renewable energy availability experienced a rapid growth over time, and the gravity center of renewable energy availability shifted slightly towards the northeast. Through tele-connecting renewable energy availability via multi-national supply chains, renewable energy exchanges greatly expanded between 2000 and 2019, with Canada-USA, China-USA, Paraguay-Argentina, Mexico-USA, China-India, and China-Japan identified as intensive trade partners. In consideration of inequality levels, an obvious decrease in Gini coefficients could be witnessed, however, the Gini coefficients of renewable energy inequalities worldwide remained high. When compared, the upper-middle-income countries had the lowest Gini coefficients and gradually surpassed high-income countries as the most equitable group. By unveiling the trajectory and inequality of renewable energy availability from both production- and consumption-based perspectives, some rational and feasible strategies would be practical in consideration of economic growth and regional disparity to promote sustainable and equitable renewable energy transition worldwide.

Integrated hybrid multi-regional input-output for assessing life cycle air emissions of the Italian power system

The air emissions of the Italian power system, as well as national emissions between 2010 and 2017 and projections to 2040, have been assessed from a lifecycle perspective, using an integrated hybrid two-region input-output model of Italy versus the rest of the world. The Italian economy is divided into 42 sectors, including electricity, which is further disaggregated into seven technologies. Detailed electricity sector data, from Istat, are fed into the EXIOBASE input-output database. NAMEA tables represent overall air emissions, while the Ecoinvent database is used for the electricity sector. Electricity transition scenarios from Terna and Snam have been integrated into input-output and air emission databases. Demand and emissions were tracked within the electricity sector over medium-term, and the findings showed a sharp decrease between 2017 and 2025, from 97.5 MtCO2 to 32.6 MtCO2. By 2040, air emissions from the electricity sector are expected to grow gradually, compared to those of 2030, from 22.2 MtCO2 to 25.9 MtCO2, suggesting that the demand between 2030 and 2040 grows faster than the decarbonization effort during the same period. There is an overall, gradual downtrend between 2010 and 2040, with all air emission categories declining by half from both production and consumption-based perspectives in this period.

Transition towards dual control of CO2 emissions and intensity through supply chain management in China

To mitigate global climate change and achieve CO2 emissions reduction goals, China proposed to shift to dual control of total CO2 emissions (CE) and CO2 emissions intensity (CEI) as early as possible. Accurately assessing provincial sectoral CE and CEI and developing reasonable regulatory strategies is a prerequisite for achieving the goal of dual control. However, there is a lack of comprehensive analysis from different perspectives of the supply chain. Therefore, this paper evaluates the CE and CEI in provincial sectors of China in 2017 from production-based and consumption-based perspectives according to multi-regional input-output (MRIO) model. Then, we analyze the supply chain of transmission sector by betweenness-based method as a supplementary perspective. The results show that: (1) The CE and CEI from different perspectives are different and can complement each other. (2) Production and distribution of electric power and heat power in Inner Mongolia (P5D24), construction in Jiangsu (P10D27), distribution of electric power and heat power in Beijing (P1D24) are the critical sectors for dual control of CE and CEI from production, consumption, betweenness-based perspectives, respectively. (3) Construction in Jiangsu (P10D27) and Shanxi (P4D27) have the highest embodied CE and CEI in China respectively. Energy and raw material sectors from upstream supply chain contribute large CE to construction sectors. This research suggests that paying attention to critical sectors from different perspectives of the supply chain and taking different measures to decrease CO2 emissions. Taking both CE and CEI into consideration and allocating CO2 emissions reduction pressures reasonably among provincial sectors. At the same time, taking care of relevant upstream sectors of the supply chain to help a single sector achieve CO2 emissions reduction goals and promote China's transition to dual control of CE and CEI.

Achieving emission reductions without furthering social inequality: Lessons from the 2007 economic crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic

To meet global climate goals, such as limiting global warming to 1.5° Celsius, urgent and substantial reductions of greenhouse gas emissions are needed. From a consumption-based perspective, such measures include a radical reduction of emissions from private households. Despite this urgency, attention must be paid to achieve such reductions without furthering social inequalities. To address these issues, this research looks at consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions of UK households longitudinally, with a particular focus on changes that occurred after the 2007/08 economic crisis and the 2020 COVID-19 lockdowns. Analysing these two events allows us to learn how emissions from different social cohorts are impacted by external shocks, providing a learning for policy. We find significant (p < 0.05) differences in the relationships between income and emissions of some age and income groups, as well as substantial descriptive differences between how age and income groups are impacted at a product-level. Importantly, we also find that despite existing levels of carbon inequality, substantial emission reductions are needed for all social cohorts assessed. However, to avoid further increasing existing inequalities and to make policies more effective, we propose interventions targeted at specific social cohorts. While an income reduction may reduce emissions of high-income households, increased access to high quality housing and public services may help reduce emissions of low-income households, whose emissions are already decoupled from income. Finally, age and income-specific interventions targeting specific consumption categories may reduce the impact of rebound effects, as well as reduce emission overall.

The effects of carbon-related news on carbon emissions and carbon transfer from a global perspective: Evidence from an extended STIRPAT model

Climate change poses an enormous challenge to countries across the world. News is a crucial channel to draw society's attention to this issue and strengthen climate governance initiatives, such as carbon emission reduction. The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of carbon-related news on carbon emissions and carbon transfer. First, we analyzed the topics of carbon-related news from media outlets such as ABC, CNN, and The Guardian from 2009 to 2019. Then, we calculated the carbon emissions from both production- and consumption-based perspectives and constructed the carbon transfer network of major countries around the world. Finally, we examined the direct and lag effects of carbon-related news attention and contents on carbon emissions and carbon transfer by using the extended population, affluence, and technology (STIRPAT) model as the analytical framework. The results showed the following. First, countries are paying increasing attention to carbon-related issues with the rise of global carbon emissions, and they mainly focus on the social aspects of carbon emissions. Second, there are differences in production- and consumption-based carbon emissions by country. The amount of embodied carbon transfer between countries has increased over time and the carbon transfer network has become tighter. Finally, carbon-related news has a positive impact on improving carbon emissions and carbon transfer worldwide. Different news topics have also shown varying effects on carbon emissions and carbon transfer. In summary, this study further revealed the impacts of carbon-related news on carbon emissions and transfer and accordingly provided policy implications in carbon emission reduction for the government.

Quantifying economic sectoral iron commodity use and related vulnerability in China's supply chains

With its widespread use in manufacturing and machinery, iron is a crucial metal for modern society. However, knowledge about the economic vulnerability of iron from multiple perspectives remains unexplored, especially for China, a country responsible for more than half of global iron and steel consumption. This study aims to quantify the inter-sectoral flows of iron commodities and the caused economic vulnerabilities, using an input-output model and complex network analysis methods. Results show that the residential building construction sector was the most vulnerable sector from a direct perspective. However, the final uses of certain services (e.g., the public administration and social organizations sector and business services sector) were more vulnerable concerning supply restriction from a consumption-based perspective. Based on the above findings, policy recommendations, such as circular economy and material substitutions are proposed to help improve resource efficiency and reduce the vulnerability of critical sectors from dependence on iron and steel.

Global drivers of timber carbon stock from income-based perspective

Introduction: Timber and its products are key carriers of carbon stocks and can cause a hysteresis effect of carbon release in the carbon cycle of forest ecosystems. The literature regarding the cross-regional flow of timber carbon stock mainly pays attention to production- and consumption-based perspectives, which cannot reflect how the primary inputs drive timber carbon stock flow. The income-based perspective accounting can identify the influence of primary input suppliers and supplement research on timber carbon stock embodied in trade. The goal of this paper is to explore the cross-regional flow of global timber carbon stock and identify the critical countries from an income-based perspective.Methods: We used the Ghosh-multi-regional input-output (MRIO) model to calculate the income-based timber carbon stock flow among 190 countries. Furthermore, combined with the Leontief-MRIO model, a comparative analysis is carried out to analyze the different results of the income-based, production-based, and consumption-based methods.Results: The results showed that the income-based timber carbon stock of the United States and China were among the top countries in imports and exports simultaneously. However, their export volumes were significantly larger, meaning that these countries have invested more primary resources in timber products. The timber carbon stock of the United States mainly flows into Canada and Brazil. In China, the largest flow went to Canada. Furthermore, the flow to the United States increased significantly. Moreover, comparing the three perspectives shows that the United States’ primary inputs have a greater impact on the global timber production chain than their production- and consumption-based roles. Brazil and Russia, as main primary resource suppliers of timber carbon stock, are more important than as final consumers.Discussion: The research can contribute to clarify the flow of forest resources embodied in global trade activities. Furthermore, it also provides a scientific basis to fairly account for carbon offset shares to achieve better the goal of forest resource protection agreed upon in COP26.

Climate neutral cities in Sweden: True commitment or hollow statements?

More cities have started trajectories to become climate neutral, especially for their territorial emissions. However, while cities are also targeting consumption-based emissions, whether their plans are sufficient to become climate neutral from both a territorial and a consumption-based perspective remains unclear.We designed a conceptual framework based on a literature review of urban climate mitigation and reviewed mitigation–related documents from nine Swedish cities. We found a strong political will and solid targets but gaps in the plans and actions mostly related to transport, construction and food. Municipal governments use “soft” policy instruments to meet climate targets; at times, economic instruments contradict the vision. Our evaluation indicates a disconnect between intent and outcomes.More regulatory instruments must be deployed to become climate-neutral, and economic incentives must be aligned with the vision. Understanding how climate mitigation strategies affect resources within the city will be necessary to ensure the acceptance and uptake of climate action plans. Collaboration with superordinate governments, within and outside national borders, will be essential to align on policy and policy instruments.

Consumption-based view on national and regional per capita carbon footprint trajectories and planetary pressures-adjusted human development

Current national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions accounts and mitigation targets are mostly based on territorial GHG accounting. While several analyses present future trajectories describing how nations could achieve emissions targets, there are relatively few analyses from the consumption-based perspective. Simultaneously, there is a broad literature on consumption-based carbon footprints of individuals and regions, but without connection to the remaining carbon budgets and associated mitigation pathways, nor to the current levels of human development. This study contributes to these debates by downscaling the 1.5-degree target to an individual scale for 152 countries, following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC’s) shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP1-1.9) pathway. We compare the calculated limits to current carbon footprints and show how the individual carbon budget can be operationalized on a national and regional level using Africa, Europe, and the USA as examples. We show that while GHG emissions in Europe and the USA greatly exceed the budget, in Africa the budget allows even growth in the short and medium term, and the emission cuts later if the remaining carbon budget is equally allocated regardless of the historic emissions. Finally, we modify the planetary pressures adjusted human development index (HDI) with consumption-based carbon footprints to highlight how different accounting principles underscore the uneven development between nations. We find that the average carbon footprint of many highly developed nations is as much as seven times the climate-sustainable limit. Furthermore, these same nations perform poorly when measuring their development level with the consumption-based emissions updated planetary pressures HDI. However, in the majority of nations (80% of the global population) the average carbon footprint is near or below the climate-sustainable level, but not in any of the top HDI countries. Our findings highlight that stronger policy and swift changes are needed to bring the carbon footprints of the residents of affluent countries to a climate-sustainable level.

Critical transmission sectors in China's energy supply chains

The transition of energy supply system is essential to achieve carbon neutrality, since carbon emissions largely come from fossil fuel consumption. To propose sector-specific strategies for energy conservation, previous studies mainly focus on sectors that directly use or indirectly drive large amounts of energy at two ends of supply chains. Transmission centers located in intermediate supply chains transmit large amounts of energy use and are usually ignored by production-based or consumption-based methods. However, efficiency improvement in transmission centers may contribute to energy conservation. In this study, we use betweenness-based method to identify critical transmission sectors for different energy types at the inter-provincial level of China in 2012, 2015, and 2017. Results show that Shandong and Jiangsu are critical energy transmission provinces, Smelting and processing of metals and Manufacture of chemical products are critical energy transmission sectors, and raw coal has the largest transmission in energy supply chains. Some critical transmission sectors get less attention from the production-based or consumption-based perspectives, such as Production and distribution of electric power and heat power in Beijing. In addition, renewable energy development is changing energy transmission patterns. To promote a low-carbon economy, betweenness-based results should be considered as complementary strategies for energy sustainable development.

Decoupling analysis of China's mining industrial development and water usage: Based on production-based and consumption-based perspectives

Mining is one of the most significant water users in the socioeconomic system. To safeguard water resources while ensuring mining safety and maintaining economic growth, it is vital to decouple water usage from mining industry expansion. Previous studies have mainly focused on direct water withdrawal in the power sector, whereas water usage, especially the embodied water footprint (WF) in the mining sector, has received less attention. This study employed the Tapio decoupling index and input‒output analysis to explore the relationship between the mining industrial development of four major mining sectors and their Production-based Water Usage (PWU) and Consumption-based Water Usage (CWU) in China from 2002 to 2015. We found that (1) During the study period, the total PWU, which presents an inverted U-shaped tendency increasing by 31.74%, was much larger than the CWU, decreasing by 18.6%, and their gap gradually widened. The “Mining and Washing of Coal” (MWC) and the “Mining and Processing of Metal Ores” (MPMO) were the largest consumers in the PWU and CWU, respectively. (2) The PWU of the whole mining sector presented a strong negative decoupling from 2002 to 2015. The “Mining and Processing of Nonmetal Ores” (MPNO) achieved strong decoupling, while MPMO and MWC presented strong negative decoupling and the “Extraction of petroleum and natural gas” (EPNG) displayed weak negative decoupling. (3) In terms of the CWU, except for EPNG, the other three sectors displayed recession decoupling, resulting in the whole mining sector presenting a recession decoupling state. Overall, our results could provide a scientific basis for the rational use of water resources in the mining sector.

Tracing toxic chemical releases embodied in U.S. interstate trade and their unequal distribution

Toxic chemicals have severe impacts on ecosystem, climate change and human health, and the current toxic releases are inequitably distributed across regions. Investigating the toxic release embodied in final demand by states and income groups can reveal the responsibility transfer of different entities. In this paper, we extended the U.S. multi-regional input–output (MRIO) model with toxic chemical release data in 2017 to conduct the production- and consumption-based accounting of toxic release by each state, and the inter-regional transfer of embodied toxic release between states. In addition, this paper analyzed how the toxic releases and inter-state transfer of embodied toxic release have been driven by income groups across states. The results showed that the toxic release from production was highly concentrated on the central states and the Great Lakes Region, while the consumption-based accounting of toxic release was more equally distributed across regions in the US. The non-metallic and metallic products manufacturing sectors were the most important sectors for most states from both production and consumption-based perspectives and were also the most essential sectors for interregional flows of embodied toxic release from Great Lake Region to Southeast, Mid-Atlantic and Northeast. Our results also showed that the largest portion (41.88%) of embodied toxic releases were triggered by households’ final demand, and that the consumption of the richest 35% of households contributed to more than 50% of the total toxic chemical releases triggered by total final demand of all households.

Production- and consumption-based carbon emission decoupling and decomposition of the Belt and Road countries

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) provides a platform for developing countries with huge growth potentials, which may also face huge carbon emission pressure while achieving rapid economic growth. Given certain similarities in economic patterns and resource endowments, this study aims to trace carbon emission decoupling and decomposition of different countries/regions within the Belt and Road area and provide new insights into the drivers of carbon emission decoupling from both production- and consumption-based perspectives. Based on the multi-regional input-output modelling and Tapio decoupling decomposition, this study quantitatively analyzes the decoupling evolution and decomposition drivers of economic activities and carbon emissions in countries along the Belt and Road. From the results, the production-based carbon emissions of the Belt and Road countries was significantly higher than the consumption-based carbon emissions. The increasing rate in the production-based carbon emissions was also faster than the consumption-based one, with an increasing huge gap between the two sides. Regarding the spatial distribution of carbon emissions, the regions with huge amounts of carbon emissions mainly distributed in Russia, Iran, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia. When compared, the consumption-based carbon emissions of China and Russia were the highest, followed by those of the countries in Central Asia and West Asia. Compared with the production-based side, the decoupling rate of the Belt and Road countries was slower than the consumption-based one. The Belt and Road countries mainly maintained in the weak decoupling status, with the economic effect as the main driver in carbon emission growth, and the energy intensity effect as the dominated contributor in carbon emission reduction. Through exploring the decoupling and decomposition of production- and consumption-based carbon emissions within the Belt and Road countries, this study attempts to provide certain implications for the low-carbon transition and sustainable development within the countries along the Belt and Road.

Scarcity-weighted metal extraction enabled by primary suppliers through global supply chains

Metal shortage and supply risk are two major challenges to the sustainable development of human society. Human socioeconomic activities are significant underlying drivers of metal depletion. Previous studies have quantified metal extraction and scarcity (i.e., from the consumption-based viewpoint). However, the role of primary suppliers in enabling downstream metal extraction and metal scarcity through global supply chains (i.e., from the income-based viewpoint) remains unknown. This study used an environmentally-extended multi-regional input-output model, combined with reserve-side scarcity indicators, to evaluate the scarcity-weighted metal extraction enabled by primary suppliers through global supply chains. We compared the income-based results with results from the production- and consumption-based perspectives and uncovered major primary suppliers, sectors, metals, and trade pairs driving scarcity-weighted metal extraction. Here we show that China, Peru, and Ireland had the highest income-based scarce metal extraction in 2014. Some resource-abundant nations (e.g., Russia and Australia) played a more important role as primary suppliers than direct producers and final consumers. Critical sectors causing significant income-based scarce metal extraction include the “Trade”, “Business services”, and “Oil” in addition to the mining sector. For metals, income-based results are more significant for metals with lower scarce extraction, such as Al, Fe, and Ni. Moreover, Rest of Southeast Asia-China was the most important producer-supplier pair probably due to the Belt and Road Initiative. The results of this study provide more information on metal scarcity for global metal resource management, and the policy implications of the income-based results could complement production- and demand-side measures.

Conceptualising a tourism consumption-based typology of yoga travellers

This paper proposes a new conceptualisation for understanding yoga tourism through a refined typology of yoga travellers. After an extensive literature review, we employed a typological analysis method to evaluate six existing yet diverse yoga typologies. This conceptual paper proposes that yoga travellers can be understood through a new typology with seven categories informed by the Theory of Tourism Consumption. This typology proposes the following types of yoga travellers: Culture Focused Yoga Traveller (CFYT), Initiator, Explorer, Masters, Spirituality Focused Yoga Traveller (SFYT), Philomath Yoga Traveller (PYT), and finally, the Indulgent Yoga Traveller (IYT). This consumption-based perspective can inform and facilitate product development in yoga destinations through a refined understanding of the travel behaviour of yoga tourists.

LIFECYCLE CARBON FOOTPRINT: THE CASE STUDY OF THE ELECTRICITY USE IN PUEBLA, MEXICO

Greenhouse gas emissions inventories and carbon footprints assessed at the local level are critical for any country, mainly for those countries which are part of the Paris Agreement such as Mexico, where federal and local governments join forces to design climate-change mitigation policies. However, determining carbon footprints is time and resource-intensive and not always possible for local governments. To meet this need, we propose an alternative method using lifecycle input-output analysis and location quotients to quantify direct and total emissions of the Mexican state of Puebla caused by its use of electricity during 2013. We quantify the emissions from the production and consumption-based perspective, finding that Puebla’s economy emitted a total of 15 million metric tons of CO2e caused by industrial sectors’ electricity use, which represented 3 % of the total national emissions caused by Mexico’s industrial electricity use. The most significant contributors to Puebla’s total greenhouse gas emissions were the “food and beverage preparation services” and the “business support services” sectors accounting for 38 % and 9 % of Puebla’s total emissions and 50 % and 23 % of direct emissions, respectively. We conclude that, in addition to the decarbonization of the energy matrix, potential climate change mitigation policies should reduce the intensity factors of the sectors with the highest emissions identified with the proposed method.

Determinants and regional contributions of industrial CO2 emissions inequality: A consumption-based perspective

The assessment of industrial consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions could explain interregional differences in carbon dioxide emissions resulting from economic activity. This study aims to assess per capita industrial consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions inequality across provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions in China from 2002 to 2017. The status and main determinants of per capita industrial consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions inequality are calculated using environmentally multi-regional input–output models and the Theil index, respectively. Comparisons with accounting results from the production side are then analyzed. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) From 2002 to 2012, both per capita industrial consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions and per capita industrial production-based carbon dioxide emissions in China show an obvious upward trend, and gradually stabilize in 2015 and beyond. (2) Economic trade leads to obvious carbon leakage among Chinese provinces and industrial sectors: the consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions of the downstream sector of the industrial supply chain is less than its production-based carbon dioxide emissions, while the carbon dioxide emissions of upstream industrial sectors is on the contrary. (3) China's per capita industrial production-based carbon dioxide emissions inequality is significantly greater than consumption-based inequality, and this gap is gradually widening. Among them, between-group inequality is the key component, but the contribution of within-group inequality is gradually increasing, which tends to exceed between-group inequality. (4) Among the eight economic groups in China, per capita consumption is the main driving factor of consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions inequality, but the industrial production carbon dioxide emissions intensity is the main contributor to production-based inequality. The above findings would provide certain theoretical support and policy references for policymakers when formulating industrial carbon emissions reduction policies.

Pre-construction quantification of embodied environmental impacts to promote sustainable construction projects: The case study of a diversion dam

A quantitative assessment of the embodied environmental impacts of infrastructures can provide initial guidance to industry practitioners and engineers at the outset of the construction projects. This study presents the applicability of the Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis as a pre-construction evaluation tool for quantifying the embodied environmental impacts of a small diversion dam in Spain. Seven impact categories are assessed from a production-based and consumption-based perspective identifying the main sectors and regions contributing to the environmental impacts. From the consumption-based perspective, Spain is the only contributor to the environmental impacts, and from the production-based perspective, Spain is the main polluting country in all the impact categories contributing on average 68.9%. The use of high quantities of construction material leads to the sectors of steel and cement to significantly increase the environmental impacts. From the production-based perspective, steel and cement contribute on average 29.5% and 17.2%, respectively. From the consumption-based perspective, both sectors account for 74% of the overall environmental impacts. As observed in this case study, the application of the EEIOA model enables engineers and designers to focus during the early design stages on decisions that achieve high embodied impact reductions, such as prioritizing recycled materials for the construction of this infrastructure and, when possible, use materials from a less polluting origin.

Mapping the changes of CH4 emissions in global supply chains

This study aims to identify methane (CH4) emission flows along global supply chains from both production- and consumption-based perspectives and their temporal changes from 2000 to 2014. We employed the structural path analysis (SPA) method to examine the embodied CH4 emission trade through inter-sectoral and inter-regional supply chains. Production activities in the sector of Agriculture (such as crop and animal production) and consumption activities in Construction (such as infrastructure) were the most significant contributors to global CH4 emission increases during 2000–2014. Agriculture and Mining (such as coal mining) accounted for large shares of global embodied CH4 trade at the final consumption tier (i.e., the trade of final goods or services), while Food (such as beverages and tobacco) and Heavy manufacturing (such as steel or automobile manufacturing) were significant contributors to embodied CH4 emissions in the trade of intermediate goods or services directly used to produce final goods or services. This finding highlights the different potential of the sectors for CH4 abatement along global supply chains. The United States imported the most embodied CH4 emissions from foreign areas in 2000 in contrast to China, which dominated imports in 2014. Over 80% of China's embodied CH4 emissions in 2014 were related to intermediate production along global supply chains due to industrial upgrading. India surpassed China as the largest direct emitter for producing final goods or services. Given the critical role of non-CO2 greenhouse gases in global climate change, the spatiotemporal changes of CH4 emissions in global supply chains can help explore the justified allocation of reduction responsibility between countries and sectors connected by the chains.

Global Trends and Drivers in Consumption- and Income-Based Emissions of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of the most hazardous substances. As unavoidable byproducts of petrogenic and pyrogenic processes, their emissions are dominantly linked to various economic sectors. In international trade, not only final consumption but also primary input can transfer the emissions among regions. Therefore, a long-term impact assessment of the international trade on PAH global emissions based on the final consumption and primary input could significantly benefit worldwide PAH mitigation strategies. This study investigated the changes in consumption- and income-based PAH emissions and interregional flows of worldwide regions, using the latest available data from 1999 to 2014. Results show that in 2014, 16.8 and 10.1% of global PAH emissions were transferred by consumption and primary input through international trade. Meanwhile, the production-, consumption-, and income-based emissions in most regions were decreasing. Furthermore, from the consumption-based perspective, sub-Saharan Africa surpassed China and became the largest net exporter of consumption-based emissions. From the income-based perspective, the net income-based outflows of India and the rest of Asia increased significantly, indicating the income-based emission leakage in emerging markets. From the socioeconomic perspective, emission intensity dominated the global decline in PAH emissions. As the two main factors driving the increase in emissions, the primary input structure (41%) had a larger effect than the final demand level (28%) from 1999 to 2014. Therefore, global cooperation, through the mitigation strategies of reducing emission factors and improving international trade patterns, is posited as an efficient strategy to reduce PAH pollution and related health risks.