Consumed Breast Milk Research Articles

Dietary Variation among Children Meeting and Not Meeting Minimum Dietary Diversity: An Empirical Investigation of Food Group Consumption Patterns among 73,036 Children in India

Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) is a widely used indicator of adequate dietary micronutrient density for children 6-23 mo old. MDD food-group data remain underutilized, despite their potential for further informing nutrition programs and policies. We aimed to describe the diets of children meeting MDD and not meeting MDD in India using food group data, nationally and subnationally. Food group data for children 6-23 mo old (n=73,036) from the 2015-16 National Family Health Survey in India were analyzed. Per WHO standards, children consuming ≥5 of the following food groups in the past day or night met MDD: breast milk; grains, roots, or tubers; legumes or nuts; dairy; flesh foods; eggs; vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; and other fruits and vegetables. Children not meeting MDD consumed <5food groups. We analyzed the number and types of foods consumed by children meeting MDD and not meeting MDD at the national and subnational geographic levels. Nationally, children not meeting MDD most often consumed breast milk (84.5%), grains, roots, and tubers (62.0%), and/or dairy (42.9%). Children meeting MDD most often consumed grains, roots, and tubers (97.6%), vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables (93.8%), breast milk (84.1%), dairy (82.1%), other fruits and vegetables (79.5%), and/or eggs (56.5%). For children not meeting MDD, district-level dairy consumption varied the most (6.4%-79.9%), whereas flesh foods consumption varied the least (0.0%-43.8%). For children meeting MDD, district-level egg consumption varied the most (0.0%-100.0%), whereas grains, roots, and tubers consumption varied the least (66.8%-100.0%). Children not meeting MDD had low fruit, vegetable, and protein-rich food consumption. Many children meeting MDD also had low protein-rich food consumption. Examining the number and types of foods consumed highlights priorities for children experiencing the greatest dietary deprivation, providing valuable complementary information to MDD.

A Review of Breastfeeding in Infants: Relation to the Occurrence of Early Childhood Caries (ECC)

Introduction: Early caries in childhood or ECC is an early form of dental caries caused by many factors. This is the main target in determining public health promotion. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), breastfeeding is an important factor in reducing infant mortality and malnutrition. Breast milk must be given exclusively for 6 months and continued with breastfeeding accompanied by complementary foods until the age of 2 years. However, breastfeeding is still a debate among researchers, there are several studies that find that breastfeeding in a long time is one of the risk factors for Early Childhood Caries (ECC). Objective: To review the relationship of breastfeeding with early childhood caries(ECC) in children. Methods: Scientific evidence and clinical cases were drawn from the literature to support this review and information about the relationship of breastfeeding with early childhood caries (ECC) in children was collected. Discussion: There are several breastfeeding relationships with early childhood caries (ECC). Some of them are the relationship between the duration of consuming breast milk, the frequency of consuming breast milk, and the time of consuming breast milk. Conclusion: The relationship between breastfeeding and ECC still needs further research. Variable factors causing caries risk in breastfeeding infants, such as wrong sucking technique, nutrient intake, frequency of breastfeeding, or the condition of the baby's tooth structure need to be followed up as further research material. Education and ways to prevent the occurrence of ECC should be done early which is mainly aimed at pregnant women, nursing mothers and health workers related to maternal and child health. Children's dental and oral hygiene need to be considered since the first teeth erupt, because the risk of caries can occur. The risk of caries in breastfeeding children can increase after the child first gets complementary food, so it is important to educate parents about dental health education on how to maintain oral health in toddlers.

Breastfeeding is associated with children's dietary diversity in Brazil.

The aim of this study was to describe food consumption patterns in Brazilian children aged 6-24 months and to assess differences between breastfed children who do not consume non-human milks, breastfed children who consume non-human milks, and non-breastfed children. This study used data from the Brazilian National Demographic and Health Survey (2006). The food consumption patterns of 1,455 children were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. One indicator adopted in this study was the healthy diverse diet. The association between breastfeeding and food consumption was tested using multivariate Poisson regression. At the interview, 15.8% of the children were breastfed without consuming non-human milk, 30.7% consumed breast milk in conjunction with non-human milk, and 53% were not breastfed anymore. Over half consumed the recommended foods, 78% consumed foods rich in sugar, fat, and salt, and only 3.4% were on a healthy diverse diet. The breastfed children who did not consume non-human milks were almost five times more likely to be on a healthy diverse diet and were 19% less likely to consume foods rich in sugar, fat, and salt than the breastfed children who also consumed non-human milks and the non-breastfed children.

Elemental signatures of Australopithecus africanus teeth reveal seasonal dietary stress.

Reconstructing the detailed dietary behaviour of extinct hominins is challenging1-particularly for a species such as Australopithecus africanus, which has a highly variable dental morphology that suggests a broad diet2,3. The dietary responses of extinct hominins to seasonal fluctuations in food availability are poorly understood, and nursing behaviours even less so; most of the direct information currently available has been obtained from high-resolution trace-element geochemical analysis of Homo sapiens (both modern and fossil), Homo neanderthalensis4 and living apes5. Here we apply high-resolution trace-element analysis to two A.africanus specimens from Sterkfontein Member 4 (South Africa), dated to 2.6-2.1million years ago. Elemental signals indicate that A.africanus infants predominantly consumed breast milk for the first year after birth. A cyclical elemental pattern observed following the nursing sequence-comparable to the seasonal dietary signal that is seen in contemporary wild primates and other mammals-indicates irregular food availability. These results are supported by isotopic evidence for a geographical range that was dominated by nutritionally depauperate areas. Cyclical accumulation of lithium in A.africanus teeth also corroborates the idea that their range was characterized by fluctuating resources, and that they possessed physiological adaptations to this instability. This study provides insights into the dietary cycles and ecological behaviours of A.africanus in response to food availability, including the potential cyclical resurgence of milk intake during times of nutritional challenge (as observed in modern wild orangutans5). The geochemical findings for these teeth reinforce the unique place of A.africanus in the fossil record, and indicate dietary stress in specimens that date to shortly before the extinction of Australopithecus in South Africa about two million years ago.

Oligosaccharides Profile and Prebiotic Potential of Gembolo Tuber (Dioscorea bulbifera)

Indonesia has many potential tubers that not yet utilized, whereas the tubers can be utilized in functional food. Dioscorea bulbifera contains oligosaccharides which can be used as functional food prebiotics based. This research aim was to analyze the content of oligosaccharides from Dioscorea bulbifera tuber flour and its prebiotics potential. The extraction of oligosaccharides from Dioscorea bulbifera flour was done using ethanol 70% and analyze the content of oligosaccharides using HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography). The inoculum of colonic microbial used from volunteer infants aged less than 6 months and only consume breast milk. The prebiotic index was determined by enumerating the growth of total bacteria, microbial probiotics (Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus) and microbial pathogens (Bacteroids and Clostridium) in anaerobic conditions at 0, 24 and 48 hours. The results showed that oligosaccharides profile of Dioscorea bulbifera flour were Inulin 0.76; Raffinose 0.07; and Lactulose 0.09% b/v. The prebiotics index value of oligosaccharide of extracts of Dioscorea bulbifera flour at 48th hour is 1.2045. It can be concluded that the oligosaccharide from Dioscorea bulbifera tuber flour has potential as a prebiotic.

Stunting, dietary diversity and household food insecurity among children under 5 years in ethnic communities of northern Thailand.

The aim of this study was to describe stunting in infants and young children in the ethnic communities of northern Thailand and to explore associations with dietary diversity and household factors including food security. A cross-sectional survey of households with children under 5 years from eight villages. Adult respondents provided information on foods consumed by each child and details of the household. Heights and weights of children were measured. Adults from 172 households and 208 children participated. Overall, 38% of children were stunted. Exclusive breastfeeding was rare, but the proportion consuming breastmilk at 24 months (75%) was high. Few children (7%) aged 6-11 months met minimum dietary diversity. Stunted children were less likely than non-stunted children to meet minimum dietary diversity (63 versus 82%). Widespread food insecurity did not discriminate between stunted and non-stunted children. Stunting was elevated when households had little land and few animals. Stunting was widespread in children under 5 years of age, in part reflecting poor dietary diversity, especially at age 6-11 months. Stunting was worst in households with least assets. Small increases in land or animals, or equivalent resources, appear to be required to improve child nutrition in extremely poor families.

Exploring variation in infant feeding practices in Byzantine Greece using stable isotope analysis of dentin serial sections

AbstractInfant feeding practices are explored in the early Byzantine Greek site of Nemea (5th–6th centuries) to better understand breastfeeding, weaning, and early diet of children in ancient Greece. Dentin serial sections were obtained from the permanent first molars and first premolars of 26 adults (seven males, eight females, and 11 of unknown sex) and analyzed for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. The isotopic data demonstrated that most individuals were breastfed and were fully weaned by around 2.6 years on average (range 1.8 to 3.6 years). A range of infant feeding practices was observed at Nemea. Some individuals were breastfed, while others were never breastfed or consumed breast milk for a short period of time, yet survived to adulthood. Sex‐based differences were not found as males and females were fully weaned at an average of 2.5 (1.9–3.3 years) and 2.4 (1.9–3.6 years) years, respectively. This is an important finding given the contradictory evidence of written sources regarding preferential treatment of male and female infants. Compared with traditional bulk analyses of subadult bone collagen, this study illustrates the utility of additional information obtained from dentin serial sections for capturing the nuances of infant feeding practices in ancient societies.

Food Consumption Patterns of Infants and Toddlers: Findings from the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS) 2016

BackgroundThe prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes continues to increase. These conditions disproportionately affect minorities and are associated with poor nutrition early in life. Current food-consumption patterns can inform pending dietary guidelines for infants and toddlers.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to describe infant feeding, complementary feeding, and food and beverage consumption patterns of 0- to 23.9-mo-olds in the general population.MethodsThe Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 2016 is a cross-sectional survey of caregivers of children aged <4 y. Dietary data were collected from a national random sample by using a 24-h dietary recall (n = 3235). The percentage of children consuming foods from >400 food groups was calculated. Differences in the percentage consuming between Hispanic, non-Hispanic white, and non-Hispanic black children aged 0–23.9 mo were evaluated with the use of ORs and 95% CIs.ResultsEighty-three percent of 0- to 23.9-mo-olds (n = 2635) were ever breastfed, 34% of 0- to 3.9-mo-olds (n = 305) and 15% of 4- to 5.9-mo-olds (n = 295) were exclusively breastfed, and 24% of 12- to 14.9-mo-olds (n = 412) consumed breast milk on the day of the recall. Complementary foods were more likely to be introduced before 4 mo in formula-fed infants (27%) than in infants who did not consume formula (5%). Half of 4- to 5.9-mo-olds consumed iron-fortified infant cereal, but few consumed iron-rich meats. Among toddlers (12–23.9 mo; n = 1133), >20% consumed no servings of fruit or vegetables on the day of the recall, approximately half consumed 100% fruit juice, and one-quarter to one-third consumed a sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB).ConclusionsBreastfeeding initiation and duration have improved, but exclusivity remains low. Low consumption of iron-rich foods, fruit, and vegetables and lack of variety in vegetable consumption are problems. Efforts to reduce the consumption of SSBs and 100% fruit juice are warranted in early childhood.

Dietary Patterns Among Children Birth to 23 Months of Age, NHANES 2009-2014

Early dietary patterns can have long-term health consequences. This study describes the dietary patterns among US children < 2 years and consistency with current recommendations including breastfeeding and foods/drinks to encourage or limit. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2014. The proportion of children ≤ 23 months who consumed different food groups and liquids/beverages on any given day by age and race/Hispanic origin were estimated. Among children < 6 months, 42.9% [95% Confidence Interval (CI): 37.0%, 49.1%] consumed breast milk; 70.5% (95% CI: 64.9%, 75.6%) formula; and 21.1% (95% CI: 17.1%, 25.8%) grains on a given day. More than half of children 6 to 11 months (57.4%, 95% CI: 52.0%, 62.6%) consumed a vegetable; whereas, less than half of children in the second year of life did. Compared to children 6 to 11 months, the proportion in the second year of life consuming snacks and sweets more than quadrupled (∼13% vs. ∼60%). Among children ≥ 6 months, non-Hispanic whites were less likely to consume fruits and vegetable and more likely to consume 100% juice and sugar sweetened beverages than non-Hispanic black and Hispanic children. Dietary patterns among children < 2 years differed by age and race/Hispanic origin. Programs and policies could impact the dietary patterns of young children by providing support for mothers to breastfeed as well as ensuring consistent messages from pediatricians and other nutrition support programs on issues like timing of food introduction, important first foods, and food groups to encourage.

Infant nutrition and maternal obesity influence the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adolescents

The pathway to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in adolescents may have its origins in adiposity gains, nutrition and sedentary lifestyle established during childhood. There is inadequate knowledge regarding the associations between infant nutrition and subsequent NAFLD. We examined the association of maternal factors and infant nutrition, with the subsequent diagnosis of NAFLD in adolescents. Adolescents aged 17years in the Western Australian Pregnancy (Raine) Cohort study had fatty liver assessment using liver ultrasound. Prospectively recorded data on maternal pregnancy and infant feeding were examined against a NAFLD outcome during late adolescence. NAFLD was diagnosed in 15.2% of the 1,170 adolescents examined. Ninety-four percent had been breastfed as infants. The duration of breastfeeding before starting supplementary milk was ⩾4months in 54.4% and ⩾6months in 40.6%. Breastfeeding without supplementary milk ⩾6months (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 0.64; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.43-0.94, p=0.02), maternal pre-pregnancy obesity (adjusted OR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.21-4.32, p=0.01) and adolescent obesity (adjusted OR: 9.08; 95% CI: 6.26-13.17, p<0.001) were associated with NAFLD independent of a Western dietary pattern at 17years of age. Adolescents with NAFLD who had been breastfed for ⩾6months had a less adverse metabolic profile compared with adolescents breastfed for <6months. Supplementary milk intake starting before 6months was associated with a higher prevalence and ultrasound severity of NAFLD compared with intake starting after 6months (17.7% vs. 11.2%, p=0.003 and 7.8% vs. 3.4%, p=0.005 respectively). Though NAFLD is generally mediated through adiposity gains, breastfeeding for at least 6months, avoidance of early supplementary formula milk feeding, and normal maternal pre-pregnancy BMI may reduce the odds of a NAFLD diagnosis during adolescence. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common liver disorder in which there is too much fat in the liver of people who do not consume excessive amounts of alcohol. In this large study, we found that infants who consumed breast milk for less than 6months before starting infant formula milk, infants who were obese as teenagers or had mothers who were obese at the start of pregnancy, were much more likely to have NAFLD at 17years of age. Based on our findings we consider that reducing the risk of NAFLD in teenagers needs to start before birth, by encouraging normal body mass index before pregnancy, as well as breastfeeding without infant formula milk consumption for the first 6months of life.

Beverage Consumption among U.S. Children Aged 0-24 Months: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

Data on beverage consumption patterns in early life are limited. The aim of this study was to describe beverage consumption by sociodemographic characteristics, along with water intake and sources of water among U.S. children aged 0–24 months. Data from 2740 children in the 2005–2012 NHANES were analysed. Food intake was determined via one 24-h dietary recall. Beverages were categorised according to What We Eat In America groups. Poverty–Income ratio was used to define household income. During infancy (0–5.9 months and 6–11.9 months) infant formulas were the most commonly consumed beverage, 74.1% and 78.6% of children consuming, respectively. Comparatively fewer children, 41.6% and 24.3%, consumed breast milk. In toddlers (12–24 months), the most commonly consumed beverages were plain milk (83.6% of children consuming), water (68.6%), 100% fruit juice (51.8%) and sweetened beverages (31.2%). Non-Hispanic black and Mexican-American children were more likely to consume sweetened beverages, 100% fruit juice and infant formula than Non-Hispanic white children. Children from lower income households were more likely to consume sweetened beverages and 100% fruit juice and less likely to consume breast milk than children from higher income households. Total water intake increased with age and the contribution of water from food and beverage sources was ~20% and ~80% for all children, respectively. Disparities in beverage consumption by race/ethnicity and income level are apparent in early life.

Longitudinal change of selected human milk oligosaccharides and association to infants' growth, an observatory, single center, longitudinal cohort study.

BackgroundHuman milk is the recommended and sole nutrient source for newborns. One of the largest components of human milk is oligosaccharides (HMOs) with major constituents determined by the mother genotype for the fucosyltransferase 2 (FUT2, secretor) gene. HMO variation has been related with infant microbiota establishment, diarrhea incidence, morbidity and mortality, IgE associated eczema and body composition.ObjectivesWe investigated the (i) dependence of several major representative HMOs on the FUT2 status assessed through breast milk 2’Fucosyllactose (2’FL) and (ii) the relation of the 2’FL status with infant growth up to 4 months of life.DesignFrom an open observatory, single center, longitudinal cohort study with quantitative human milk collection at 30, 60, and 120 days postpartum from 50 mothers, who gave birth to 25 female and 25 male singleton infants, we collected a representative sample of human milk. We quantified the following 5 representative HMOs: 2’FL, Lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), Lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), 3’Sialyllactose (3’SL) and 6’Sialyllactose (6’SL). We grouped the milk samples and corresponding infants according to the measured milk 2’FL concentrations at 30 days of lactation, which clustered around low concentrations (95% CI of mean 12–42 mg/L) and high concentrations (95% CI of mean 1880–2460 mg/L) with the former likely representing Secretor negative mothers. Infant anthropometric measures were recorded at birth, 1, 2 and 4 months of age. Relations among the quantified HMOs and the relation of the high and low 2’FL HMOs groups with infant growth parameters were investigated via linear mixed models.ResultsThe milk samples with low 2’FL concentration had higher LNT and lower LNnT concentrations compared to the samples with high 2’FL. The milk 3’- and 6’SL concentrations were independent of 2’FL. Over lactation time we observed a drop in the concentration of 2’FL, LNT, LNnT and 6’SL, especially from 1 to 2 months, while 3’SL remained at relatively constant concentration from 1 month onwards. Up to 4 months of age, we did not observe significant differences in body weight, body length, body mass index and head circumference of the infants who consumed breast milk with low or high FUT2 associated HMO concentrations and composition.ConclusionsOur findings on HMO concentrations over time of lactation and clusters based on 2’FL concentrations confirm previous observations and suggest that LNnT and LNT are ‘co-regulated’ with the FUT2 dependent 2’FL concentration, with LNnT showing a positive and LNT a negative relation. Further, our findings also suggest that the relatively substantial variation in HMOs between the high and low 2’FL clusters do not impact infant growth of either sex up to 4 months of age. The study was registered in www.ClinicalTrial.gov (NCT01805011).

Nutritional status of infants with cow's milk allergy who consume breast milk vs. hypoallergenic formula

Background Infants with CMA are prone to suffer malnutrition because of the inability to absorb nutrients due to bowel inflammation. Breast milk and hypoallergenic formula is the best nutritional intake in CMA infants.Objective To compare the nutritional status of CMA infants who were consumed breast milk and hypoallergenic milk.Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study included a total of 63 CMA infants aged 3-6 months collected by consecutive sampling. Infant’s nutritional status measured by anthropometric exam were divided into well-nourished (-2 to 2 SD) or malnourished (&lt;-2 or &gt;2 SD). Type of milk consumption were asked directly to parents/caregivers through interviews.Results Most of our subject are well-nourished (75%). The number of CMA infants who were consumed breast milk or hypoallergenik milk is not a lot of difference, 51% vs 49%, respectively. There is no significant difference between the nutritional status of CMA infants who consumed breast milk and hypoallergenic milk (P=0.61).Conclusion because there were no differences between the nutritional status of CMA infants who consumed breast milk and hypoallergenic milk. Therefore it is recommended giving breast milk or hypoallergenic milk for the first 6 months of life to reduce cow’s milk protein exposure.

Nutrient composition of premixed and packaged complementary foods for sale in low- and middle-income countries: Lack of standards threatens infant growth.

Premixed flours for infant porridge are increasingly produced and sold in developing countries to complement continued breastfeeding. Such complementary food (CF) products have known efficacy against malnutrition in children from 6 to 24months of age, but ingredient ratios and production processes may vary. This study provides the first systematic measurement of their actual nutrient composition. We purchased samples of 108 premixed CF products in 22 low- and middle-income countries, and commissioned blind laboratory measurement of each product's macronutrients and micronutrients. We compared measured contents to nutrient claims on their packaging and to CF standards from the Codex Alimentarius, the Super Cereal Plus product used in nutrition assistance programs, and the Lutter and Dewey (2003) recommendations, as well as our own modeled nutrient requirements for a healthy breastfed child. Actual densities are significantly different from nutrient claims for protein (p=.013) and fat (p=.000). Only 15% of samples met two of the three benchmarks for fat, 32% met the most stringent protein standard, while only 22% met them for iron, and 21% for zinc. The median healthy child consuming breast milk plus enough of these solid foods to meet energy needs would experience deficits of zinc at 6months, iron at 6 and 9months, and dietary fat from 12months of age. In summary, premixed CF products can provide adequate nutrient density but usually do not, revealing the need and opportunity for independent monitoring and quality assurance to help grain millers making premixed foods maintain uniform ingredient ratios and production practices.

Mexican Children under 2 Years of Age Consume Food Groups High in Energy and Low in Micronutrients

Background: Mexico faces malnutrition problems in the child population. Analysis of food consumption in small children allows us to identify and propose strategies focused on feeding to improve their nutritional status.Objective: We described the consumption of beverages and food groups in Mexican children <24 mo of age.Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in 926 children aged <24 mo participating in the 2012 ENSANUT (National Health and Nutrition Study). Dietary information was obtained through 24-h recalls. The foods and beverages consumed were divided into 17 groups. Consumption was estimated in grams or milliliters, kilocalories per day, and percentage of energy (PE) per day. The percentage of consumers was calculated for each food group and stratified by age (<6, 6–11, and 12–23 mo) and by breastfeeding status (breastfed or not breastfed). Differences in the consumption of food groups were analyzed by breastfeeding status, area of residence (urban or rural), and socioeconomic status (SES) by using linear regression adjusted for age, breastfeeding status, and survey design.Results: Only 35% of the children consumed breast milk. Infant formula was consumed by 48% in children aged <6 mo and by 33% in children 6–11 mo old. More than 35% of the children aged 6–11 and 12–23 mo and 12% of children <6 mo old consumed nondairy sugar-sweetened beverages. Legumes and seeds and maize-based preparations contributed a higher PE in rural areas (3.4% and 1.9%, respectively) than in urban areas (11.1% and 6.4%, respectively) (P < 0.05). Children from the lowest SES category consumed less PE from cereals other than maize (2.4%) and more from maize-based preparations (10.2%) than did the middle (4.9% from other cereals and 8.0% from maize) and high (6.0% from other cereals and 4.5% from maize) SES categories (P < 0.05).Conclusion: Mexican children <24 mo of age do not consume a diet that meets recommendations, which is consistent with the high prevalence of malnutrition in Mexico.

Food groups consumed by infants and toddlers in urban areas of China

BackgroundFood consumption patterns of young children in China are not well known.ObjectiveCharacterised food groups consumed by infants and young children in urban China using data from the Maternal Infant Nutrition Growth (MING) study.DesignOne 24-h dietary recall was completed for 1,350 infants and young children (436 infants aged 6–11 months and 914 young children aged 12–35 months), who were recruited from maternal and child care centres in eight cities via face-to-face interviews with the primary caregiver. All foods, beverages and supplements reported were assigned to one of 64 food groups categorised into the following: milk and milk products, grains, vegetables, fruits, protein foods and desserts/sweets. The percentage of infants and young children consuming foods from specific food groups was calculated, regardless of the amount consumed.ResultsLess than half of infants consumed breast milk (47%), whereas 59% of infants consumed infant formula and 53–75% of young children consumed growing-up (fortified) milk. Rice was the number one grain food consumed after 6 months (up to 88%) and the consumption of infant cereal was low. About 50% of infants did not consume any fruits or vegetables, and 38% of young children did not consume any fruits on the day of the recall. Only 40% of all children consumed dark green leafy vegetables and even fewer consumed deep yellow vegetables. Eggs and pork were the most commonly consumed protein foods.ConclusionsThe data provide important insight for developing detailed food consumption guidelines for this population group. Mothers of infants should be encouraged to continue breastfeeding after the first 6 months. Parents should be advised to offer a wide variety of vegetables and fruits daily, particularly dark green leafy and deep yellow vegetables and colourful fruits. The consumption of fortified infant cereal should be advocated to improve the iron intake of Chinese infants.

Gut permeability in infants with cow's milk allergy

Our previous study revealed that newborns had a high level of absorption of human milk α-lactalbumin. [1] It decreased during the first month in the whole and non-allergic infants showed a 4- fold reduction of gut permeability at 25-30 days of life. But patients with early allergic symptoms have increased gut permeability in comparison to non-allergic infants. In this study we examined gut permeability in infants with food allergy. 29 infants with skin and gastrointestinal symptoms of food allergy and 15 non-atopic infants without any skin and gastrointestinal problems were under examination. Human milk α-lactalbumin was measured in blood serum by ELISA after breast milk feeding. Index of absorption was calculated according to the amount of consumed breast milk. This study revealed high level of gut permeability in infants with skin and gastrointestinal manifestations of food allergy during the first year of life. Index of absorption of human α-lactalbumin in atopic patients was 4-fold higher than in control group at the age 3-6 months (p<0,01) and 5,5 fold higher than in control group at the age 6-12 months (p<0,01). There was correlation between human α-lactalbumin absorption index and serum IgE level. High level of gut permeability is the purpose for using hydrolysed formula or amino acids based formula in patients with Cow's milk allergy.

Breast milk from women living near Lake Malawi is high in docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid

Adequate long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) intake is critical during the fetal and infant periods. We quantified fatty acid content of breast milk (n=718) and plasma from six month old infants (n=412) in southern Malawi, and in usipa (n=3), a small dried fish from Lake Malawi. Compared to global norms, Malawian breast milk fatty acid content (% of total fatty acids) was well above average levels of arachidonic acid [ARA] (0.69% vs. 0.47%) and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA] (0.73% vs. 0.32%). Average Malawian infant plasma ARA (7.5%) and DHA (3.8%) levels were comparable to those reported in infants consuming breast milk with similar fatty acid content. The amounts (mg) of DHA, EPA and ARA provided by a 3oz (85g) portion of dried usipa (1439, 659 and 360, respectively) are considerably higher than those for dried salmon. Usipa may be an important source of LCPUFA for populations in this region.

Urban and rural infant-feeding practices and health in early medieval Central Europe (9th-10th Century, Czech Republic).

In the Central European context, the 9th and 10th centuries are well known for rapid cultural and societal changes concerning the development of the economic and political structures of states as well as the adoption of Christianity. A bioarchaeological study based on a subadult skeletal series was conducted to tackle the impact of these changes on infant and young child feeding practices and, consequently, their health in both urban and rural populations. Data on growth and frequency of nonspecific stress indicators of a subadult group aged 0-6 years were analyzed. A subsample of 41 individuals was selected for nitrogen and carbon isotope analyses, applying an intra-individual sampling strategy (bone vs. tooth). The isotopic results attest to a mosaic of food behaviors. In the urban sample, some children may have been weaned during their second year of life, while some others may have still been consuming breast milk substantially up to 4-5 years of age. By contrast, data from the rural sample show more homogeneity, with a gradual cessation of breastfeeding starting after the age of 2 years. Several factors are suggested which may have been responsible for applied weaning strategies. There is no evidence that observed weaning strategies affected the level of biological stress which the urban subadult population had to face compared with the rural subadult population.

Nonylphenol in pregnant women and their matching fetuses: Placental transfer and potential risks of infants

As the predominant environmental biodegradation product of nonylphenol (NP) ethoxylates and with proven estrogenic effects, NP is formed during the alkylation process of phenols. The purposes of this study were (1) to examine maternal and prenatal exposure to NP in Taiwan, (2) to determine the level of placental protection against NP exposure as well as the level of NP in breast milk, and (3) to assess the potential risk for breastfed newborns exposed to NP through the milk.Thirty pairs of maternal and fetal blood samples, placenta, and breast milk during the 1st and the 3rd months of lactation were collected. External NP exposures of these specimens were then analyzed by using high-performance liquid chromatography coupling with fluorescence detection. Next, the socio-demographics, lifestyle, delivery method, dietary and work history were collected using a questionnaire. In addition, the daily intake of NP from consuming breast milk in the 1st and 3rd months for newborns was studied through deterministic and probabilistic risk assessment methods.The geometric means and geometric standard deviation of NP levels in maternal blood, fetal cord blood, placenta, and breast milk in the 1st and 3rd months were 14.6 (1.7) ng/ml, 18.8 (1.8) ng/ml, 19.8 (1.9) ng/g, 23.5 (3.2) ng/ml, and 57.3 (1.4) ng/ml, respectively. The probabilistic percentiles (50th, 75th, and 95th) of daily intake NP in breast milk were 4.33, 7.79, and 18.39μg/kg-bw/day in the 1st month, respectively, and were 8.11, 10.78, 16.08μg/kg-bw/day in the 3rd month, respectively. The probabilistic distributions (5th, 25th, and 50th) of risk for infants aged 1 month old were 0.27, 0.64, and 1.15, respectively, and that for infants aged 3 month old were 0.31, 0.46, and 0.62, respectively.Through repeated exposure from the dietary intake of expectant mothers, fetuses could encounter a high NP exposure level due to transplacental absorption, partitioning between the maternal and fetal compartments. Daily NP intake via breast milk in three month-old babies exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 5µg/kg bw/day indicated a potential risk for Taiwan infants.